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CEPF
supports projects in
hotspots, areas with more than 60 percent of the Earth’s
terrestrial species in just 1.4
percent of its land surface.
The Caucasus
hotspot, with its unique assemblages of plant
and animal communities and rare and endemic species, is
globally important for conserving
representative areas of the Earth’s biodiversity, making it
worthy of international attention
and CEPF funding. A fundamental purpose
of CEPF is to ensure that civil society is engaged in efforts to
conserve biodiversity in the hotspots. An additional
purpose is to ensure that those efforts
complement existing strategies and frameworks established by
local, regional and national
governments.
CEPF aims to promote working alliances among community groups,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
government, academic institutions and the private sector,
combining unique capacities and eliminating duplication of
efforts for a comprehensive approach to
conservation. CEPF is unique among funding mechanisms in that it
focuses on biological areas rather than
political boundaries and examines conservation threats on
a corridor-wide basis to identify and support a regional, rather
than a national, approach to achieving
conservation outcomes. Corridors are determined through a process
of identifying important species, site
and corridor-level conservation outcomes for the
hotspot. CEPF targets transboundary cooperation when areas
rich in biological value straddle
national borders, or in areas where a regional approach will be
more effective than a national approach.
THE ECOSYSTEM PROFILE
The Caucasus hotspot, historically interpreted as the isthmus
between the Black and Caspian seas,
covers a total area of 580,000 km2, including the nations of
Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, the
North Caucasus portion of the Russian Federation,
northeastern Turkey and part of northwestern Iran (Figure
1). One of the most biologically rich
regions on Earth, the Caucasus is among the planet’s 25
most diverse and endangered hotspots. The Caucasus is one
of WWF’s Global 200 Ecoregions,
identified as globally outstanding for biodiversity. The Caucasus
has also
been named a large herbivore hotspot by WWF’s Large Herbivore
Initiative. Eleven species of large
herbivores, as well as five large carnivores, are found over a
relatively small area. The 2002 IUCN Red
List identifies 50 species of globally threatened animals
and one plant in the Caucasus. Among the IUCN species, 18
have restricted ranges or are endemics.
The Caucasus Mountains harbor a wealth of highly sought-after
medicinal and
decorative plants, as well as unique relic and endemic plant
communities.
Spanning the borders of six countries, the Caucasus hotspot is a
globally significant center of cultural
diversity, where a multitude of ethnic groups, languages and
religions intermingle over a relatively
small area. Close cooperation across borders will be
required for conservation of unique and threatened
ecosystems, while helping to foster
peace and understanding in an ethnically diverse region.
The purpose of the ecosystem profile is to provide a rapid
assessment of underlying causes of
biodiversity loss, to define measurable outcomes for conservation
of species, sites and corridors,
understand the existing institutional framework and identify
funding gaps and opportunities for
investment. The ecosystem profile recommends strategic
funding directions that will contribute to the conservation
of biodiversity in this globally
significant region.
Civil society organizations will propose projects and actions that
fit into these strategic directions and
contribute to the conservation of biodiversity in the targeted
region. Applicants propose specific
projects consistent with these funding directions and
investment criteria. The ecosystem profile does not define
the specific activities that prospective
implementers may propose, but outlines the conservation strategy
that will guide those activities.
Applicants for CEPF grants will be required to prepare detailed
proposals identifying and describing the interventions and
performance indicators that will be used
to measure the success of the project.
BACKGROUND
The ecosystem profile and five-year investment strategy for the
Caucasus Region was developed based on
stakeholder workshops and background reports coordinated by the
WWF Caucasus Programme Office (WWF Caucasus). More than 130
experts from the six countries
participated in preparation of the Caucasus ecosystem profile
representing a variety of scientific,
governmental and nongovernmental organizations. During the six
months of the project, data on biodiversity, socioeconomic
factors, institutional context and
conservation efforts from six countries were compiled and
synthesized. Two stakeholder workshops
were held in November 2002 and January 2003 to allow broad
input from the conservation
community and to formulate and approve the niche and
investment strategies proposed for CEPF in the region. The
workshops helped people from six
countries to reach a consensus in this politically complicated
region. They also generated commitment
from all stakeholders for implementation of proposed directions.
This ecosystem profile, together with profiles under
development for CEPF in other regions at
this time, includes a new commitment and emphasis on using
conservation outcomes—targets against
which the success of investments can be measured—as the
scientific underpinning for determining CEPF’s geographic
and thematic focus for investment.
Conservation outcomes are the full set of quantitative and
justifiable conservation targets in a
hotspot that need to be achieved in order to prevent biodiversity
loss. These targets are defined at three levels: species
(extinctions avoided), sites (areas
protected) and landscapes (corridors created). As conservation in
the field succeeds in achieving these
targets, these targets become demonstrable results or outcomes.
While CEPF cannot achieve all of the
outcomes identified for a region on its own, the
partnership is trying to ensure that its conservation
investments are working toward
preventing biodiversity loss and that its success can be monitored
and measured. Species, site and corridor
outcomes for the Caucasus were defined in cooperation with
scientists at CI’s Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CABS).
Based on the results
of these analyses, experts identified 10 corridors that encompass
the vast majority of outcomes defined
for the Caucasus hotspot. In parallel to
this work, WWF coordinated the development of a long-term vision
for
conservation of the Caucasus Ecoregion. About 60 priority areas
for achieving the vision were identified
based on biological and socioeconomic analyses and identification
of focal species, processes and
habitats. Corridors and CEPF strategies for this profile were
determined taking into account the conservation vision and
identified priority areas, the
conservation site outcomes determined for 51 globally threatened
species and the existing network of
protected areas in the region.
WWF Caucasus prepared this profile in collaboration with the
MacArthur Foundation, the German Bank
for Reconstruction and Development (KfW) and BirdLife
International. The Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation
Union of Armenia, CABS, the Center for
Sustainable Development of Iran, the Ecological Union of
Azerbaijan and AHT International
provided technical support.
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
The Caucasus is a hotspot of plant and animal species diversity
and endemism important for the
conservation of biodiversity on a global scale. Located at a
biological crossroads, species from
Central and Northern Europe, Central Asia, the Middle East and
North Africa mingle here with endemics
found nowhere else. High levels of landscape
diversity in the Caucasus are largely the result of
temporal-spatial variability in the
region. The unique geology and terrain, consisting of three major
mountain chains separated by valleys and
plains, permit a variety of different microclimate, soil and
vegetative conditions, resulting in a broad range of
landscapes and unusually high levels of
species diversity for the Temperate Zone. Climatic conditions are
very diverse, with precipitation ranging
from more than 4,000 mm per year in the southwestern Caucasus to
less than 200 mm a year in deserts in the eastern Caucasus.
More than 6,500 species of vascular plants are found in the
Caucasus. A quarter of these plants are
found nowhere else on Earth - the highest level of endemism in the
temperate world. At least 153 mammals
inhabit the Caucasus; one-fifth of these are endemic to the
region. As many as 400 species of birds are found in the
Caucasus, four of which are endemic to
this hotspot. The coasts of the Black and Caspian seas are
important stop over sites for millions
of migrating birds, which fly over the isthmus each spring and
autumn between their summer and winter
homes. Twenty-two of the 77 reptiles in the Caucasus
are endemic to the region. Fourteen species of amphibians
are found in the region, of which four
are endemics. More than 200 species of fish are found in the
rivers and seas of the region, more than
a third of which are found nowhere else.
Globally Threatened Species Globally
threatened species—those listed as vulnerable, endangered and
critically endangered according to the
IUCN Red List—are the primary focus for conservation at
the species level in this profile. In all, 50 globally
threatened species of animals and one
plant were identified in the hotspot. The distribution of these
species was assessed to
determine important sites and corridors for conservation. The East
Caucasian tur and the West Caucasian tur
are among the 18 mammals identified in this hotspot. Turs are
found in the Greater Caucasus Range,
dwelling mainly in the high mountains and sometimes
descending into the rocky gorges of the forest belt. In
recent years, their numbers have
declined greatly and now IUCN lists the turs as endangered and
vulnerable. The Armenian mouflon, an
endemic species of wild sheep and the ancestral form of domestic
sheep, is another mammal listed as vulnerable in the IUCN
Red List. Mouflon populations have
dwindled to fewer than several hundred in southern Armenia and in
the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic
(Azerbaijan). Dahl’s jird, found in semi-desert
habitats in the Araks River valley, is also endangered in
the region. Globally threatened birds in
the Caucasus include the critically endangered Siberian
crane that migrates along the Caspian Sea coast; the
vulnerable great bustard, found in open
plains in northern Iran and Turkey during migration and in the
North Caucasus of Russia; the endangered
white-headed duck; and vulnerable red-breasted goose that
winters in wetlands in Azerbaijan, Russia and northern Iran
and Turkey. In all, 11 bird species in
the Caucasus are listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically
endangered according to IUCN.
The 10 globally threatened reptiles in the region include the
Caucasian viper, meadow viper and
Dinnik’s viper. These vipers are endemic to the Caucasus and
occupy total ranges of only a few
thousand square kilometers. The endemic Caucasian salamander,
one of the four vulnerable species of amphibians, is found
only in western Georgia and
Turkey. Six species of sturgeon and the
beluga are endangered by overfishing and habitat
degradation in the Black and Caspian seas. The Baltic
(Atlantic) sturgeon, which spawns only
in rivers in the Kolkheti Lowlands in Georgia, is critically
endangered. Additionally, the Caucasus
has a number of important flagship and locally threatened
species. Perhaps the best known is the highly endangered Caucasian
leopard, celebrated in local folklore.
The leopard used to be widespread throughout the Caucasus, but now
it is found only in remote parts of the
Greater Caucasus Range, southern Armenia, the
Nakhichevan Republic (Azerbaijan), the Talysh Mountains and
in bordering areas of northeastern
Turkey and northwestern Iran. The main reasons for the leopard’s
decline
are habitat loss, poaching and decline of prey species.
Other large mammal species include the striped hyena, which
is now on the verge of
extinction, and the Caucasian red deer, one of the most endangered
species of wildlife in the southern
Caucasus. Chamois and goitred gazelle are also important flagship
species in the region.
Endemic species of birds in the Caucasus include the
Caucasian black grouse and the Caucasian
snowcock. The Caucasian black grouse occurs in all the high
mountains of the Caucasus, while the
Caucasian snowcock is found only in the Greater Caucasus Range.
Vegetation
The vegetation of the Caucasus is quite diverse as a result of the
varied relief, climate and evolutionary
history. Outstanding features include plants and plant
associations that date back to the
Tertiary Period, including in the Colchic Region in the Black Sea
basin and the Hyrcanic Region in the
southeastern portion of the Caucasus on the Caspian Sea
coast. The abundance of relic and endemic plant species in
the region is largely due to the fact
that the Caucasus was spared glaciation during the last Iceage.
The
Colchic
Refugia (Georgia, Russia and Turkey) and the Hyrcanic Refugia
(Azerbaijan and Iran) harbor
species found nowhere else like Imeretian and pontic oaks,
Medwedew’s birch, Ungern’s and Smirnow’s
rhododendron, epigea and others. Chestnut-leaf oak, Hyrcanic
poplar, danae and other plants are endemic relics of the
Hyrcanic Region. Relic forests
of endemic box tree occur in the northern part of the Colchic
Region.
About 700 species of higher plants are listed in regional Red
Books of Rare and Endangered Species,
including at least 20 species of bellflower and 18 species of
iris. Five species of lichens and 11
species of fungi are also locally endangered. Tigran’s
elder is the only globally threatened plant included in the
IUCN Red List and considered in this
Ecosystem Profile as a conservation target at the species level.
This vulnerable
shrub is an endemic found sporadically in the Shirak, Aparan,
Yerevan and Darelegis regions of
Armenia, in lower and middle mountain belts on dry rocky and clay
soils. It is threatened by habitat loss
to development and overgrazing.
Major Ecosystems
The major ecosystems in the Caucasus hotspot consist of forests,
high mountain habitats, dry mountain
shrublands, steppes, semi-deserts and wetlands. In the North
Caucasus Plain, vegetation changes from
steppe communities in the west to semi-desert and desert
habitats in the east. Moving south, the Greater Caucasus
Range rises above the plain
with several peaks above 5,000m, enveloped by broadleaf and
coniferous forests and subalpine and
alpine meadows, glaciers and snowfields. The Greater Caucasus
Range gives way to the narrow
Transcaucasian Depression to the south, with rich alder and
Caucasian wing-nut swamp forests in the Kolkheti Lowlands
to the west and steppes, arid
woodlands, semi-deserts and deserts to the east. The Lesser
Caucasus Mountain Chain rises to the
south of this depression, with broadleaf and coniferous forests
and alpine meadows and shrublands. The
Southern Uplands abut the Lesser Caucasus Mountains,
characterized by mountain steppe and grasslands. The
Talysh-Alborz Mountain Range, in the
southeastern corner of the hotspot, extends along the Caspian Sea
from southern Azerbaijan to northern
Iran, where broadleaf forest, mountain steppe and alpine meadow
ecosystems are represented.
Forests are the most important biome for biodiversity conservation
in the Caucasus,
covering nearly one-fifth of the region. Forests in the Caucasus
are highly diverse, consisting of
broadleaf, dark coniferous, pine, arid open woodland and lowland
forests, which are dispersed according
to elevation, soil conditions and climate in the region.
Broadleaf forests, consisting of Oriental beech, oak,
hornbeam and chestnut, make up most of
the forested landscape of the Caucasus. Beech forests play the
leading role in the region’s timber
industry. Careless clearcutting of mountain beech stands has
permanently damaged a significant
portion of valuable beech forests in the Northern Caucasus. Most
oak species in the hotspot are endemic to the region. Oak
forests, largely cleared for farmlands
and pastures, have been spared mostly in remote canyons and on
relatively
poor soils.
Chestnut forests in the Colchic foothills and in the
northwestern Caucasus have also been
logged intensively. In northeastern Turkey, broadleaf forests are
cleared for tea and hazelnut
plantations. In northwestern Iran, only 12 percent Arasbaran
broadleaf forests remain, noted for their high number of
endemic species. Dark coniferous
forests, made up mainly of Oriental spruce and Caucasian fir, are
found
in the western part of the Lesser Caucasus Range and on both sides
of the western and central Greater
Caucasus Range. Coniferous forests are logged for paper production
and timber, resulting in severe
depletion of these reserves. Pine forests occur in the North
Caucasus, though they are also found in the southern
Caucasus, especially in the Kura River
watershed in Georgia and Azerbaijan.
Arid open woodlands form on dry, rocky slopes in the eastern and
southern Caucasus, made up of juniper
and pistachio species. Lowland forests are found in floodplains
and
on low river terraces, generally growing on alluvial, swampy, or
moist soils. Very few lowland forests
have been preserved to this day; some stands remain only in the
Lenkoran and Kolkheti lowlands and in
the Kura, Iori, Samur and Alazan-Agrichay river valleys.
High mountain meadows are dominated by herbaceous species. About
1,000 vascular plant species are found
in the Greater Caucasus high mountains and half of these are
endemics. Caucasian rhododendron thickets grow on slopes
with northern exposure in the Greater
Caucasus Range and in the northern part of the Lesser Caucasus
Mountain Chain.
Alpine mats, formed by dense low-lying perennial plants, cover the
terrain on the upper belts of these two
mountain systems. Alpine meadows and grasslands are used
intensively for livestock grazing in the summer throughout
the region, resulting in decline in
plant species diversity. Unique communities of cliff and rock
vegetation are distributed throughout
the high mountains of the Caucasus. Approximately 80 percent of
the plant species found in rock and scree communities on
Colchic limestone ridges in the
Greater Caucasus are endemic to the hotspot.
Mediterranean and Anatolian-Iranian shrublands occur in
arid mountains of the Caucasus
where continental climate prevails, particularly in the foothills
of the Araks River watershed.
Steppe vegetation used to be widespread on the Caucasus
Isthmus, but today only fragments of
primary steppe communities have survived
on slopes that are unsuitable for
agriculture. Steppe communities are found in the plains and
foothills of the eastern and
southern Caucasus. Highland steppe communities, primarily found in
dry mountain regions of the southern
Caucasus, are diverse in species composition and have a number
of endemic plants. Until
recently, semi-deserts with elements of desert vegetation were
widespread in the
lowlands and foothills of the eastern part of the Caucasus
Isthmus. In the past few decades,
agricultural development, irrigation and winter grazing practices
have significantly altered the landscape
in this area. The few semi-deserts and deserts that
have been preserved are made up of either predominately
wormwood or salt habitat species.
Wetland ecosystems are found throughout the Caucasus and
include estuaries and river deltas,
marshes, swamps, lakes and streams in alpine regions. Wetland
vegetation covers large areas along the
lower Terek, Sulak, Kuban, Kura, Samur and Rioni rivers and the
coastal zones of the Black, Azov and Caspian seas. Flora in
wetlands ranges from aquatic vegetation
in lakes, to swampy floodplain, brush and forest ecosystems, to
sphagnum-sedge swamps in the Kolkheti Lowlands. The marshes
along the Caspian
coast in northwestern Iran are particularly important for
waterfowl. A variety of lakes are
scattered throughout the Caucasus from small alpine lakes to
significant bodies of water such as Lake
Sevan with highly specific fish fauna.
Protected Areas
Protected areas have played an important role in nature
conservation in the Caucasus for nearly
a century. The first strict nature reserve in the region was
created in 1912 in Lagodekhi Gorge on
the southeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Range in Georgia.
Since then, more than 60 strict nature reserves were
created in the former Soviet part of the
Caucasus, yet many of these were abolished in the 1950s. Georgia,
for example, had
22 strict nature reserves prior to 1951. By the end of the
protected area reform process, only one
reserve remained. In time, some previously existing protected
areas were reestablished and new ones
were created. Now, Georgia has 16 strict nature reserves and
two national parks.
Today, there are 55 strict nature reserves and national parks in
the Caucasus hotspot. Combined, nature
reserves (IUCN categories I and II) protect a total land area of
1.2 million hectares or 2.1 percent of
the Caucasus Region. Besides these protected areas,
there are a large number of multiple-use sanctuaries,
refuges, nature parks, hunting
reserves and protected forests in the Caucasus (IUCN categories IV
to VI). Altogether,
approximately 8 percent of the Caucasus Region is afforded some
sort of protection. Most strict nature
reserves and national parks, particularly in the southern
Caucasus, are too small to guarantee
long-term biodiversity conservation. Economic problems have
resulted in an increase in poaching, illegal forest cutting
and grazing in protected areas where the
protection regime is not always enforced. Reserve employees are
underpaid and equipment and
transportation are lacking. Buffer zones are often non-existent,
so consequences of resource use and
human pressures outside reserves spill over the borders
and impact protected ecosystems. Furthermore, the existing
protected areas system is not
entirely representative of the full range of biodiversity in the
hotspot.
New protected areas need to be created in certain regions where
there are none and corridors need to be
created between existing protected areas. The protected status of
sanctuaries with low levels of protection need to be
increased in areas that are important
for conservation of biodiversity and endangered species and
ecosystems. Management and planning in
nature reserves needs to be improved by increasing the
qualifications of
nature reserve staff and elaborating and implementing management
plans.
CONSERVATION OUTCOMES
This ecosystem profile, together with profiles under development
for other regions at this time, includes
a new commitment and emphasis on using conservation
outcomes—targets against which the
success of investments can be measured—as the scientific
underpinning for determining CEPF’s geographic and thematic
focus for investment. Conservation
outcomes are the full set of quantitative and justifiable
conservation targets in a hotspot that
need to be achieved in order to prevent biodiversity loss. These
targets
are defined at three levels: species (extinctions avoided), sites
(areas protected) and landscapes
(corridors created). As conservation in the field succeeds in
achieving these targets, these targets
become demonstrable results or outcomes. While CEPF cannot
achieve all of the outcomes identified for a region on its
own, the partnership is trying to ensure
that its conservation investments are working toward preventing
biodiversity loss
and that its success can be monitored and measured. CI’s Center
for Applied Biodiversity Science is
facilitating the definition of conservation outcomes across the 25
global hotspots, representing the
benchmarks against which the global conservation community
can gauge the success of conservation measures.
Species Outcomes
In determining species outcomes, CEPF aims to improve or stabilize
the conservation status of species and
ultimately avoid extinctions. Since avoiding species extinctions
is essential for halting biodiversity
loss, threatened species, or species that have a high
probability of extinction, are the obvious targets for
conservation in a given hotspot. Species
outcomes are defined based on the conservation status of
individual species, compiled in IUCN Red
Lists. The Red List is based on quantitative, globally applicable
criteria under which the probability of extinction is
estimated for each species. Species
outcomes in the Caucasus hotspot are those species that are
globally threatened
(vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered) according to
the most recent IUCN Red List. Outcome
definition is a fluid process and as data and criteria become
available, species-level outcomes are
being expanded to include other taxonomic groups that have
not been assessed, as well as restricted-range species
(endemics). In order to determine
species outcomes for the Caucasus, WWF Caucasus synthesized
available information on globally threatened birds for the
hotspot, based on data provided by
BirdLife International. It also included all other globally
threatened species in the hotspot, based
on recent IUCN Red Lists. Local scientists assisted in determining
whether or not each species actually occurs in the
Caucasus. WWF Caucasus then compiled a
database on threatened species including the status, distribution,
conservation
needs and major threats for each species based on surveys of
scientists in the field. A total of 51
species representing six taxa (mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, fish and plants) were
included in the species outcomes as a result of this process
(Table 1, Appendix 1). Eighteen mammal
species, 11 bird species, 10 reptile species, four
amphibian species, seven fish species and one plant species
were selected as targets for
conservation. Two species of mammals are listed as critically
endangered: the saiga antelope, found
only in the Russian part of the Caucasus, and the Armenian birch
mouse, found only in Armenia. Four
mammals are endangered, including the West Caucasian
tur and Dahl’s jird. Eleven of the 18 mammal species are
found in Armenia, Azerbaijan
and Georgia, while 14 species are found in Russia, 10 in Iran and
nine in Turkey. The vulnerable giant
mole rat is found only in Russia. Six of the threatened mammals
are endemics or restricted-range
species.Table 1.
Summary of species outcomes for the Caucasus hotspot
*September
2004 update: The global conservation status of one of the
amphibian species outcomes has since
been determined to be near threatened, rather than vulnerable as
originally indicated. As a result of
this new information, the species can no longer be considered a
species outcome or a priority for CEPF
investment. The CEPF investment strategy and appendices of this
profile have been updated with thischange.
Eleven bird species were identified as conservation
outcomes, including one critically
endangered species - the Siberian crane, which migrates along the
Caspian coast. The white-headed duck is
endangered, while the remaining nine species are considered
vulnerable. Three of the avian species outcomes are found
in Georgia and four in Armenia. Eight
birds are found in Azerbaijan and 10 in the Turkish Caucasus. The
Russian and Iranian Caucasus both have all 11 bird species.
Three additional bird
species, used by BirdLife International to delineate Important
Bird Areas (IBAs), are local endemics
with restricted ranges: Caucasian black grouse, Caucasian snowcock
and Caucasian chiffchaff.
Ten species of reptiles and four species of amphibians were
targeted in the species outcomes. Two
reptiles—Darevsky’s and pontic vipers—are critically endangered.
The large-headed water snake is found
only in the Russian Caucasus. All four species of
amphibians are vulnerable. The Persian brook salamander is
found only in the Iranian Caucasus.
Seven of the 10 threatened reptiles and all of the threatened
amphibians in the
hotspot are restricted-range species or local endemics.
Seven species of fish are included in the species outcomes,
six of which are from the
sturgeon genus. Five of the seven fish are endangered. The
critically endangered Baltic sturgeon is
found only in the Black Sea and rivers of the Kolkheti Lowlands in
Georgia. Overfishing and pollution in
the Caspian and Black seas threaten all of these fish species.
Only one plant—Tigran’s elder—is included in the species
outcomes as a vulnerable species. This
endemic species is sporadically found on lower and middle mountain
slopes in Armenia and is threatened by habitat loss to development
and overgrazing. In summary, six species
of the 51 are critically endangered, 14 are endangered and 31 are
vulnerable. The 51 threatened species were the basis for
determining site-level outcomes for the
Caucasus hotspot and will be important indicators of the success
of future conservation activities. Among
them, critically endangered, restricted-range and
landscape species with large ranges that cannot be saved at
the site-level were taken into account
as important conservation priorities at the species level
(Appendix 2). CEPF and the conservation
community should monitor the status of these species closely to
prevent further extinctions and
biodiversity loss.
Site Outcomes
Site outcomes were defined for each target species, recognizing
that most species are best conserved
through the protection of the sites in which they occur. Site
outcomes are physically and/or
socioeconomically discrete areas of land that need to be protected
to conserve the target species. Sites
are scale-independent, which means they can be very
small or very large. The defining characteristic of a site is that
it is an area that can be managed as a
single unit. Sites can be any category of protected area,
governmental lands, or private farms or
ranches. The main objective of defining important sites for
conservation of threatened species is to identify areas
where investments can be made to create
protected areas or special conservation regimes, expand existing
protected areas
and improve protected area management, all of which will help to
prevent species extinctions and
biodiversity loss. In order to define
the site-level outcomes, WWF Caucasus analyzed point data on the
distribution of globally threatened and endemic species
(species outcomes). It mapped
the data according to the six taxa (mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, fish and plants) to
determine sites where these species are found. Since BirdLife
International has already determined
IBAs for bird fauna, these were automatically included as site
outcomes in the hotspot. Existing protected areas in the
region where globally threatened species
(species outcomes) occur were also included in the list of sites.
Much of the
work involved resolving overlaps between the IBAs, existing
protected areas and other site outcomes
for non-bird taxa, since IBAs were not always delineated with
regard to protected area boundaries.
Important habitats for threatened species that are not
currentlyprotected but could be managed as a single unit were also
included. Additional factors considered
in determining site outcomes were: a) important habitats for
endemics
(restricted-range species) and b) sites important for large
congregations of waterfowl and fish,
particularly those that hold more than 1 percent of the global
population of a single species at a
particular time (according to BirdLife International criteria).
WWF Caucasus identified 205 site outcomes for the Caucasus,
covering 19 percent of the hotspot. It
compiled a database on these site outcomes including the site
name, major habitat, threatened species
occurring there, protected status, threats and proposed
conservation actions. Table 2 shows how the outcomes are
distributed across countries and
taxonomic groups. In Armenia, 20 sites were identified, covering
an area of more than 0.91 million
hectares. Azerbaijan has 61 site outcomes covering more than 1.29
million hectares. Georgia has 49 site outcomes across an area of
2.17 million hectares. In northwestern
Iran, 15 site outcomes have been identified across 1.65 million
hectares. The Russian Caucasus includes
42 site outcomes with a combined area of 2.29 million
hectares. Northeastern Turkey has 18 site outcomes with an
area of 2.25 million hectares. These
sites are described in Appendix 3 and depicted in Figure 2.
In all, 115 of the sites identified in the site outcomes harbor
mammals listed as threatened by IUCN.
Globally threatened birds and IBAs are represented in 100 of the
sites, while reptiles and amphibians are
found in 59 and 21 of the sites, respectively. Threatened fish
species are found in 20 of the 205 sites and the Tigran’s
elder - the only globally threatened
plant species - is found in three sites.
Table 2. Summary
of site outcomes for the Caucasus hotspot
Corridor Outcomes
Corridor outcomes are large-scale landscapes that need to be
conserved in order to allowpersistence of biodiversity. While
protecting sites alone will not be sufficient to conserve
biodiversity in the long-term, conservation of landscapes
(corridors) large enough to allow the
persistence of biodiversity must be anchored on core areas (site
outcomes), embedded in a matrix of other
natural habitat and anthropogenic land uses. Corridors
within the Caucasus were identified and delineated based on
the following criteria:
coverage of site outcomes, existence of large-scale intact biota
assemblages, needs of wide-ranging
(landscape) species, connectivity of habitats and opportunities
for maintaining ecological and
evolutionary processes. Areas that were considered for
corridors included intact rivers and landscapes, natural
mountain passes, known migratory
corridors and areas with spatial heterogeneity that could serve as
stepping stones for many species. WWF
Caucasus also considered habitat representation,
resilience to anthropogenic development scenarios and the need to
safeguard unknown areas that might
harbor high levels of biodiversity or endemism.
Ten conservation corridors were identified for the Caucasus
hotspot as important for biodiversity
conservation (Appendix 4 and Figure 3). Of these, five were
determined to be priority (target)
corridors for conservation. All 10 corridors are described below
in brief, including significant
biodiversity features, threatened species and habitats,
institutional factors and potential for expansion of protected
areas. An explanation of the ranking of
the five priority corridors is given below under CEPF Niche for
Investment
Figure 2. Site outcomes for the
Caucasus hotspot
Note: Site numbers correspond to numbering in Appendix 3.
Kuma-Manych Corridor
The Kuma-Manych Corridor (2.08 million hectares) extends along the
northern border of the hotspot in the
North Caucasus Plain and includes the eastern coast of the Azov
Sea. The corridor, located entirely
within the Russian Federation, harbors numerous wetlands,
large lakes and channels - important areas for waterfowl
that have been designated IBAs and site
outcomes. Wetlands are surrounded by steppe and semi-desert
habitats. Parts of the corridor have
been severely impacted by grazing, farming, poaching and
overfishing. The Kuma-Manych Corridor
was delineated based on its importance for migratory
waterfowl and its significant number of IBAs. The corridor
contains 11 site outcomes, making up a
quarter of its area. Lake Manych-Gudilo, the Yeyski Salt Lakes and
the deltas of the Don and Kuban rivers
are some of the more notable sites. The Kuban River
Delta has been designated a Ramsar site. Ten globally threatened
species are found here, such as European
mink, otter, bustard and three species of sturgeon. Eight wetland
sites hold globally significant
congregations of waterfowl, such as the red-breasted goose and
lesser white-fronted goose. Three wildlife sanctuaries
protect only 4.1 percent of the
corridor. There are no local NGOs active in the region, but
universities and institutes in large
cities of the North Caucasus work in these areas. International
conservation organizations and
Russian national NGOs are active in the region. State natural
resource management agencies have
representative offices for the region.
Greater Caucasus Corridor
The Greater Caucasus Corridor (4.68 million hectares) mainly
includes middle and high mountain areas
of the Greater Caucasus Range, extending from the Black Sea almost
to the Caspian. The corridor runs along
the borders of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and
contains the highest peak in Europe - Mount Elbrus
(5,642m). Major habitats include
deciduous and coniferous forests at middle elevations and elfin
woods, shrublands, alpine meadows,
glaciers and snowfields at high elevations. Large areas of
pristine forests and high mountain
habitats remain intact. A number of endemic species of plants and
animals are found here. The region was named a large
herbivore hotspot by WWF for the
abundance of ungulates. Threats to biodiversity include illegal
logging, overgrazing
in high mountain areas, poaching and political strife. The
corridor contains 40 site outcomes,
making up almost half of its area. Twenty globally threatened and
seven restricted-range species are found
here including East and West Caucasian turs and
Dinnik’s viper. One site, Teberdinsky Nature Reserve,
harbors globally significant
congregations of the endemic Caucasian black grouse. Protected
areas cover 35 percent of the corridor,
including 15 strictly protected nature reserves, three national
parks and 23
sanctuaries and other areas. Several reserves are adjacent to each
other across national borders, offering
great potential for transboundary cooperation. Some reserves
should be connected by wildlife
corridors to facilitate migration of red deer and other species.
Political conflicts in Abkhazia (Georgia) and Chechnya (Russia)
make work in certain areas of the
corridor difficult. A number of NGOs are active in the corridor.
Existing protected areas are the basis
of many investment projects in the region. State natural
resource management agencies have representative offices in
the corridor.
Caspian Corridor
The Caspian Corridor (3.23 million hectares) is located along the
Caspian Sea coast from the Talysh
Mountains in the south to the northern border of the hotspot,
including parts of Azerbaijan and
Russia. Coastal wetland, marine, semi-desert and desert habitats
are found in this corridor, which has
the lowest level of precipitation in all of the Caucasus.
The Caspian Corridor was delineated based on its importance
for migratory waterfowl
and its significant number of IBAs. The corridor has 31 sites
identified as site outcomes, covering
more than a quarter of its area. Twenty sites have important
congregations of waterfowl, the largest
number in the Caucasus. Many sites are critical spawning areas for
threatened sturgeon populations.
Twenty-three globally threatened species are found
here, such as the Caspian seal, found in the Absheron site
and the marbled duck, found in lakes and
shore areas along the Caspian. Illegal fishing threatens sturgeon
populations. Poaching of migratory birds
is widespread. Pipeline construction and oil development
threaten certain parts of the region, such as Baku Bay. The
protected areas system, made up of four
nature reserves and 11 sanctuaries, covers 14 percent of the
corridor. Some
NGOs are active in the corridor, but capacity is generally
limited. New funds for the environment
are becoming available from oil companies in the region. State
natural resource management agencies
have representative offices in the corridor.x.
18
here, such as the Caspian seal, found in the Absheron site and the
marbled duck, found in lakes and shore
areas along the Caspian. Illegal fishing threatens sturgeon
populations. Poaching of migratory birds
is widespread. Pipeline construction and oil development
threaten certain parts of the region, such as Baku Bay. The
protected areas system, made
up of four nature reserves and 11 sanctuaries, covers 14 percent
of the corridor. Some NGOs are active in
the corridor, but capacity is generally limited. New funds for the
environment are becoming available from oil companies in
the region. State natural resource
management agencies have representative offices in the corridor.
Figure 3. Corridor outcomes for the Caucasus hotspot
1 - Kuma-Manych; 2 - Greater Caucasus; 3 - Caspian; 4 -
West Lesser Caucasus; 5 - Javakheti; 6 -
East Lesser Caucasus; 7 - Iori-Mingechaur;
8 - Southern Uplands; 9 - Arasbaran;
10 - Hyrcan
West Lesser Caucasus Corridor
The West Lesser Caucasus Corridor (2.99 million hectares) is
situated in the western part of the
Lesser Caucasus Mountain Range, where it extends along the Black
Sea from northeastern Turkey to
southwestern Georgia, ending in central Georgia. The area has
the highest level of precipitation in the Caucasus. The
Colchic Refugia, at the core of the
corridor, contains the highest levels of woody plant diversity in
the hotspot with a large percentage of
endemic and relic species. Major habitats consist of broadleaf,
coniferous and elfin forests with
evergreen understory. Five species of rhododendron are found
here, including two endemics. The Kolkheti Lowlands harbor
important wetlands for migrating
waterfowl and rivers for spawning sturgeon, including the
critically endangered Baltic sturgeon.
Significant numbers of threatened bat species are found
here. The region was named a large herbivore hotspot by WWF for
its abundance of ungulate species. In
all, 21 site outcomes are found in this corridor, covering 76
percent of its area. Four sites contain
globally significant congregations of birds. The corridor
includes the highest number of threatened species among the
corridors (29) including several species
of endemic vipers, sturgeon and the otter. Seven restricted-range
species
inhabit the area, such as the Caucasian salamander. Illegal
fishing threatens sturgeon populations
in the Black Sea, while fuel wood collection, illegal logging and
timber export affect forest ecosystems.
Poaching, oil pipelines, sea ports and damming of rivers
impact freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Protected
areas cover 11 percent of the
corridor and include 12 nature reserves, seven national parks and
five sanctuaries. Transboundary
cooperation between reserves bordering Turkey and Georgia has been
initiated. WWF and several local NGOs are active in the
region, as well as the Georgian and
Turkish governments. State natural resource management agencies
have representative offices in the
corridor.
Javakheti Corridor
The Javakheti Corridor (0.42 million hectares), the smallest
corridor in the Caucasus, is situated in
the northern part of the Southern Uplands on the border of
Armenia, Georgia and Turkey. Habitats
include high mountain wetlands with lakes of volcanic origin,
steppes and meadows. The region is one of the three
important migratory corridors for birds
in the Caucasus. Thirteen site outcomes are found here, covering
53 percent of the corridor. Six globally
threatened species inhabit the region, such as the corncrake and
imperial eagle. Darevsky’s viper is one of the two
restricted-range species in this
corridor. Ten sites in the corridor have significant congregations
of waterfowl, the second largest in the
hotspot after the Caspian Corridor. Threats to habitats include
unsustainable water management, poaching of birds and
overgrazing. There are no protected
areas in the corridor, providing opportunities to create new
reserves, including across political
boundaries. A number of NGOs are active in this corridor. State
natural resource management agencies
have representative offices in the region.
East Lesser Caucasus Corridor
The East Lesser Caucasus Corridor (1.43 million hectares) in
Armenia and the Nakhichevan Autonomous
Republic of Azerbaijan is situated mainly in the eastern and
southern parts of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain.
Temperate broadleaf forests, mountain
steppes and subalpine and alpine meadows are the primary habitat
types. Juniper woodlands are found on
mountain slopes. Lake Sevan, the largest freshwater
lake in the Caucasus, is included in this corridor. The
leopard - a flagship species - is found
in the region. The corridor includes 13 site outcomes, making up
nearly half of its
area (52 percent). Fourteen globally threatened species are found
here, such as Armenian mouflon, bezoar
goat, otter, Armenian birch mouse and Tigran’s elder. Lake Sevan
has large congregations of waterfowl.
The Armenian birch mouse and the Armenian
mouflon are restricted-range species in this corridor. Fuel
wood collection and illegal logging,
poaching, overgrazing and unsustainable water management threaten
the region’s biodiversity and natural
ecosystems. Protected areas cover a quarter of the
corridor, but only two of these are national parks, three are
strict nature reserves and the remaining
sixteen are sanctuaries with insufficient protected regimes to
prevent biodiversity loss. The status of
these protected areas should be increased and new
reserves should be created. Institutional capacity is
limited, with the exception of
governmental agencies, which have representatives of environmental
and other natural
resource management agencies in the region. International NGOs
carry out conservation work in the
corridor.
Iori-Mingechaur Corridor
The Iori-Mingechaur Corridor (0.97 million hectares) is situated
in the central part of the
Transcaucasian Depression on the border between Georgia and
Azerbaijan. The corridor includes intact
arid plateau and foothill habitats with pistachio-juniper
woodlands, as well as a significant
portion of the floodplain forests in the hotspot. Steppe,
semi-desert and
wetland ecosystems are also represented here. The corridor
includes 14 site outcomes, covering 57
percent of its area. Three sites are important for bird
congregations. Nine globally threatened
species inhabit the region including Mehely’s horseshoe bat,
common tortoise, imperial eagle and
otter. Significant threats include overgrazing, poaching and
infrastructure development. Protected areas cover 15.1
percent of the corridor. Habitats
are adequately protected on the Georgian side and protection is
relatively good in Azerbaijan. The
corridor has high potential for transboundary cooperation among
reserves. Several NGOs from Georgia and Azerbaijan are
active in this region. State natural
resource management agencies have representative offices in the
corridor.
Southern Uplands Corridor
The Southern Uplands Corridor (2.04 million hectares) covers the
central part of the Southern Uplands on
the border of Turkey, Iran and Armenia. The sacred Mount Ararat
(5,165 m), located in this corridor, is one of the highest
peaks in the Caucasus Hotspot. Major
habitats include mountain steppes and scattered wetlands. The
corridor contains 16 site outcomes,
covering 62 percent of its area. Two sites have globally
significant
congregations of birds. Twenty-four globally threatened species,
such as Armenian mouflon and bezoar
goat, are found in the corridor. Seven species have restricted
ranges, such as Dahl’s jird and Schaub’s
bat, which occur only in this corridor. Overgrazing and
poaching threaten the region’s habitats and wildlife.
Protected areas are poorly represented,
covering less than 1 percent of the corridor. New protected areas,
particularly in wetland areas, should be created. Institutional
capacity is limited, with the exception
of governmental agencies, which have regional divisions of
national environmental and natural
resource agencies.
Arasbaran Corridor
The Arasbaran Corridor (1.24 million hectares) includes the
extreme northwestern part of Iran at the
junction of the Southern Uplands and the Lesser Caucasus Range.
The Araks River borders the corridor to
the north. Major habitat types include mountain steppes,
remnants of broadleaf forests and wetlands in the Araks
River watershed. Mountain habitats are
important for the leopard. The corridor includes five site
outcomes, which
cover more than half of its area. Three sites along the Araks
River are important for congregations of
waterfowl. Globally threatened species include 16 species, such as
the Armenian mouflon and bezoar goat.
The Persian brook salamander is one of the three
restricted-range species. Threats to natural habitats
include overgrazing and poaching, as
well as construction of roads and dams. Protected areas cover
nearly a quarter of the corridor, but
the protected status of these is generally too low to guarantee
biodiversity conservation. Institutional
capacity is limited, though regional representatives of
environmental agencies and protected areas staff are
present.
Hyrcan Corridor
The Hyrcan Corridor (1.85 million hectares) includes the Talysh
Mountains in Azerbaijan and the
northwestern part of the Alborz Mountains in Iran, along with a
section of the Caspian coast. The
Hyrcanic Region is one of the two important plant refugia in the
Caucasus Hotspot, where a number of relic and endemic
species are found. Major habitats
include broadleaf forests, high mountain steppes and meadows and
some coastal wetlands - important
wintering grounds for endangered bird species. One wetland area
has Ramsar status. Leopards are found in forest habitats. The
corridor contains eight site outcomes,
covering over 21 percent of its area. Two sites are important for
bird congregations. Nineteen globally
threatened species are found in the corridor including
sturgeon and Siberian crane. Overarching threats include
unsustainable logging, poaching and
overfishing of sturgeon species. Protected areas (one strict
nature reserve,
one national park and 11 other types of protected areas) cover an
insufficient portion of the corridor
(8.6 percent) and most of these have low protected status.
Institutional capacity is limited,
though regional representatives of environmental agencies and
protected areas staff are present.
Thirty-three sites with a combined area of 675,341 hectares
were not included in any of the
corridors. These sites should be targeted for investment by other
funding sources since they do not fall
under the corridor outcomes that will be supported by CEPF
investment. The majority of these sites are IBAs that are
distributed along bird migratory
routes. White-headed duck, otter and several species of bats are
just a few of the globally threatened
species that need protection in these individual sites. Two sites
in Armenia are crucial for protection of
the Tigran’s elder plant. Additionally, there were several site
outcomes that were only partially covered by corridors.
Threats to these sites include
infrastructure development (urban expansion), overgrazing,
overfishing, poaching and
water pollution. These sites should be targeted for investment by
other funding sources since they do not
fall under the corridor outcomes that will be supported by CEPF
investment. In summary, the area
of the 10 corridor outcomes is 20.8 million hectares, making up
35.5 percent of the hotspot. Corridor outcomes contain the
majority of the globally threatened
species and are important areas of congregations of waterfowl and
Caucasian
endemics. Corridors are generally the most intact areas in the
Caucasus, partly because they are
located along political borders, furthest from administrative
centers and development pressures. The
majority of the protected areas in the hotspot fall within the
boundaries of the 10 corridors. Corridors include 84
percent of the total number of sites
identified in site outcomes, or 94 percent of the total area of
site outcomes (Figure 4).
The remaining sites, shown in Figure 4 and listed in Appendix 3,
must be targeted for individual
conservation programs from other funding sources to prevent
extinctions of globally threatened
species.
Figure 4. Site and corridor outcomes
in the Caucasus hotspot
SOCIOECONOMIC
FEATURES
Humans have inhabited the Caucasus for many millennia. Legions of
rulers and government regimes have vied
for control of the region and its rich natural and cultural
resources. Nearly half the lands in the Caucasus have been
transformed by human activities. Any
strategy for conservation of the rich biodiversity of the region
will have to take the human factor into
account by seeking alternative ways to boost local economies
through integrating sustainable practices of natural
resource use and including local
communities in conservation programs.
Institutional Framework
After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1990, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia and even Russia
faced the challenge of building new governmental structures. New
state institutions dealing with natural
resources were created while others were dismantled or
reorganized. Environmental ministries are the leading
agencies in biodiversity conservation in
Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, while the Ministry of Natural
Resources absorbed the functions of the environmental
ministry in Russia in 2000. Forestry,
water resources, agricultural and other agencies also have
jurisdiction over
various aspects of natural resources. Ministries generally have
regional divisions in each of the
provinces within the countries. However, state conservation
agencies often lack funding and capacity
to implement their mandates or to enforce legislation and
international obligations. Conflicting policies in
legislation and overlapping jurisdictions
in addition to a general lack of communication among
governing bodies hinder effective
management of environmental resources and create significant contradictions in
regulation.
In Turkey, the Ministry of Forestry deals with biodiversity
conservation issues in forests. Turkey’s
Ministry of Environment also plays an important role, dealing with
pollution, marine and wetland
ecosystems, climate change, sustainable resource use and other
issues. Iran’s Department of the Environment is in charge
of environmental protection in that
country.
Universities, scientific academies and specialized institutes on
forestry, soils, biology and marine
resources play an important role in research and inventory of
biodiversity in the hotspot. Scientists
and students participate in reserve planning and fieldwork in
protected areas.
The NGO movement has gained momentum over the past decade in each
of the Caucasus countries. National and
local NGOs speak out on environmental issues, impact public
opinion and conduct scientific studies on environmental and
social issues. NGOs provide independent
information on important topics, often filling in gaps where
scientific and governmental institutions
fall short. NGOs play a crucial role in bringing a variety of
stakeholders together, holding meetings among decisionmakers,
local communities, businesses and
international organizations. Fourteen national NGOs, such as the
Environment Foundation of Turkey and the SOS Environment
Volunteers and eight local NGOs, such as
the Black Sea Environmentalists, are active in the Turkish
Caucasus. The Center for Sustainable
Development (CENESTA) is one of many environmental NGOs
active in Iran. Some of the more notable of the over 20 NGOs in
Armenia are the Biodiversity and
Landscape Conservation Union, Khazer Ecological and Cultural NGO
and the Center for Environmental Rights. Azerbaijan has the
Ecological Union, Green Wave and the
Green Movement of Azerbaijan among 40 others. At least 50
environmental NGOs are active in Georgia, such as the
Noah’s Ark Center for Recovery of
Endangered Species (NACRES), Georgian Center for Conservation of
Wildlife (GCCW) and the Green Movement
of Georgia. NGOs promoting conservation in the
Russian Caucasus include the Socio-Ecological Union and other
regional divisions of Russian NGOs and
the North Caucasus Association of Protected Areas.
International NGOs such as BirdLife International, Eurasia
Foundation, Fauna and Flora
International, Greenpeace, MacArthur Foundation, Wetlands
International and WWF are important
catalysts for biodiversity conservation in the Caucasus.
Nature Conservation Legislation
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia began to adopt new
environmental legislation after the
demise of the Soviet Union in 1990. Legislation was enacted on
environmental protection, protected
areas, wildlife management and forestry. Other laws on air
pollution, water, land use and environmental impact
assessments were also enacted.
In Turkey, articles in the 1982 Constitution guarantee the right
to a clean environment and lay out
principles for protection of cultural and natural areas. A number
of other laws on allocation of forests
for protection, hunting and fishing, water use, tourism,
coastal areas, export of animal species and national parks
have come into force in the past two
decades.
Iran’s constitution proclaims the need to prevent pollution and
environmental degradation. Laws
governing management of game, forest and rangeland resources have
been in effect since 1967. Laws and acts dealing with
environmental protection, air pollution
and water use were put in place beginning in the 1970s and 1980s.
Deficiencies in existing regulations are
related to the lack of correct environmental data, lack of
enforcement by environmental inspection agencies and the scarcity
of experienced environmental
professionals in the country.
Gaps and contradictions in conservation legislation and
overlapping jurisdictions plague each of
the countries in the Caucasus. Transboundary cooperation on
environmental issues is limited, though
a memorandum of understanding is under consideration between
Georgia and Turkey to promote cooperation on biodiversity
conservation and sustainable
resource use in the globally important Colchic Region. Bilateral
agreements on environmental cooperation
also exist between Georgia and Azerbaijan and between
Georgia and Armenia, yet detailed work plans have yet to be
elaborated. All six countries have
signed the majority of international conventions, including the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Wetlands of
International Importance, Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and World
Cultural and Natural Heritage. Not all
of the countries, however, have the capacity and finances to
fulfill their
international obligations. Countries are implementing other
multilateral strategies and programs
such as the Caspian Environment Program and Regional Seas Project.
Economic Situation
The economies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia are still
in a state of transition since the fall
of the Soviet Union. Economic development and indicators
clearly differ between urban areas and rural communities,
where corridor outcomes have been
delineated. Agricultural farming, livestock, forestry and fishing
make up the bulk of the economy in rural
regions in the Caucasus. Agriculture was
the leading sector of the economy for Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia
and the Russian Caucasus during Soviet
times. Fertile soils and favorable climate conditions
allowed a broad range of production. Goods shipped to the USSR
included grapes, wine, tobacco, cotton,
fruit, vegetables, tea and citrus fruits. Since 1990, production
and distribution patterns were
disrupted. In Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, total
production of previously exported crops such as citrus
fruits and grapes is only a third of
pre-1990 levels. Today most of the rural population depends on
subsistence farming, growing basic food
crops for consumption. Livestock farming (cattle, sheep, goats) is
the
primary source of income in mountain regions. Cattle and sheep
provide leather, wool, meat, milk and
other products. Livestock production has decreased in the former
Soviet republics in the past 10 years.
Fishing in rivers, lakes and seas has been an important
part of regional economic
development for centuries. The demand for caviar, sturgeon and
other fish on global markets encourages
overfishing and poaching. Sturgeon is the most sought after fish,
with seven species living in the Caspian and Black seas and
swimming up rivers to spawn. The Caspian
Sea holds 90 percent of the world’s sturgeon. Overfishing in the
Black and Caspian seas has brought about the demise of
sturgeon and other fish - 13 species of
fish in the Black Sea are endangered or nearly extinct. Fishing in
freshwater
rivers and lakes plays an important role in local economies and
for supplementing low incomes in rural
areas. Poaching in important rivers and streams for spawning
sturgeon is widespread.
Agriculture is also the leading industry in the Turkish
Caucasus. Major crops include grains,
vegetables, industrial crops, fruit and seeds for oil. All of the
tea produced in Turkey comes from the
Caucasus provinces. Livestock and bee-keeping are also
important sources of income in rural areas. The bulk of
fish production in the country comes
from the Turkish Caucasus. Yet the economic situation in the
Turkish Caucasus lags behind economic
indicators for Turkey. The Iranian
Caucasus has grasslands favorable for livestock breeding and
agriculture. Craft-making and fruit
orchards are also important sources of income in rural areas.
Dairy products from this region such as Leghvan cheese are
world-renowned. The forestry and wood
manufacturing industry in the Caucasus has felt the impacts of the
economic crisis more acutely than other areas of production,
despite relatively large forest
reserves, particularly in the North Caucasus. Wood processing
plants produce boards for construction,
furniture, parquet flooring and other products. Forests provide
firewood for heat and cooking in rural areas. Due to the
chronic lack of energy resources in
Georgia and Armenia, the public sector now consumes two to three
times more
firewood than in the 1980s. Illegal logging and timber export put
at risk some of the last remnants of
forests in the Caucasus. A once
flourishing tourism industry based on spas and mineral baths,
beaches of the
Black and Caspian seas and mountain sports has diminished to next
to nothing. Today, many tourists prefer
to travel to more exotic destinations with higher standards,
resulting in serious losses to local
economies. Facilities to support tourists in the former Soviet
region of the Caucasus are decaying or lacking altogether,
suggesting that either large investments
would be required to boost this sector of the economy or local
people would need to become more active
in providing diversifying services to tourists (bed and
breakfasts, restaurants, souvenirs) to reach a different
market segment.
Infrastructure and Regional Development
Infrastructure is mainly concentrated in and around large cities,
far from rural areas. Several dams for
hydroelectric stations and reservoirs have altered natural river
systems and flooded forests and steppes.
Oil pipelines connect the Caspian and Black seas and
gas pipelines run from Russia to Armenia via Georgia. The
Baku-Ceyhan pipeline, now under
construction, will connect the Caspian Sea with the Mediterranean,
running through Azerbaijan, Georgia and
Turkey. Pipelines and power lines fragment natural
habitats and disrupt animal migrations.
Roads are generally under-developed and poorly maintained
due to the complicated mountainous
terrain in the region and lack of finances. Railroads follow the
major roads
and are connected by ferries to Ukraine and Europe, offering
potential for connection to the European
railway network. Water transportation is accessible from ports on
the Black Sea, handling some freight and
insignificant numbers of passengers. The Caspian
Sea is landlocked and connections between ports of adjacent
countries are limited. Most of the
Caucasus Region is electrified. The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant,
the only atomic power station in the
Caucasus, produces the bulk of the energy in Armenia. In
Azerbaijan, thermal power plants produce 85 percent of the
energy and hydropower provides the rest.
Most of the energy in Georgia is generated by hydropower.
Since infrastructure and regional development is mostly
concentrated near urban centers, many of
the outlying regions of the countries are largely unscathed by
large-scale
infrastructure projects and development. Border regions of the
countries, which are usually the most
distant areas from administrative centers, harbor large swaths of
intact natural habitats. As a result,
much of the biodiversity in the Caucasus has been preserved
in these outlying regions and many of the corridor outcomes
are situated in border regions.
Demography and Social Trends
Approximately 35 million people live in the Caucasus hotspot and
about half in rural areas. The region
has a high population density at 60 people per square kilometer.
High migration rates are characteristic
for the entire region. Incentives for migration include
better employment opportunities, higher income and the
attraction of urban life for rural
youth. As a result of migration and falling birth rates, the
overall population in the region has
decreased since 1990. The majority of
the population in rural areas of the former Soviet Union lives
below the poverty level. Most have low
disposable incomes, limited access to health care, poor
housing and shortages of fuel and electricity. Health care
is more accessible in the Turkish
Caucasus and some other areas. Many people in rural villages
supplement their
income with food from vegetable gardens, livestock, fishing and
hunting.
The Caucasus is a mosaic of ethnic, religious and cultural
diversity. A multitude of languages can
be heard in the region. Christianity and Islam are practiced side
by side and while differences in
religious beliefs are generally tolerated, historically religion
has been the reason behind many ethnic
skirmishes. Many people are aware of
environmental issues due to the generally high level of
education in the region (literacy is near 100 percent in
most areas). Rural populations, however,
are generally less informed and competent environmental
journalists in these areas are lacking.
The desire to take action to improve the environmental situation
among the general public is very low, since most people are more
concerned with meeting basic needs such
as food, drinking water, or employment.
In conclusion, a rapid assessment of the socioeconomic situation
assists in identifying the niche for
CEPF in the region. Clearly, civil society - NGOs, scientific
institutes, universities and other
groups - is established in the region, providing a basis for
conservation action, though finances and capacity are
limited. Governmental institutions are
generally supportive of conservation and a number of laws are in
place, but agencies
often lack financial and technical capabilities to enforce them.
Cooperation on the environment between
countries is limited but the potential exists, particularly where
protected areas and migrating species are concerned. Most
of the counties in the region are
experiencing economic difficulties. The rural population is
especially poor, where people are
largely dependent on the land to meet their basic needs. New
models of alternative income generation
and sustainable resource use are needed to help the rural
population emerge from economic depression and become less
dependent on natural resources. The
general public in corridor areas is largely uninformed on
environmental issues and lacks incentive
to participate in conservation programs.
SYNOPSIS OF CURRENT THREATS
Biodiversity of the Caucasus is being lost at an alarming rate. On
average, nearly half of the lands in the
hotspot have been transformed by human activities. The plains,
foothills and subalpine belts have been
the most heavily impacted. Native floodplain vegetation
remains on only half of its original area in the North
Caucasus and only 2-3 percent of
original riparian forests remain in the southern Caucasus. Most
natural old growth forests
have been fragmented into small sections, divided by areas of
commercial forests or plantations, as
well as agricultural and developed lands. For the Caucasus as a
whole, about a quarter of the region
remains in reasonable condition, while less than 10 percent
of the original vegetation, including forests, can be
considered pristine. Numbers of large
herbivores have dropped dramatically in the past century. Red deer
numbers have plummeted from 800 in the Lagodekhi Nature
Reserve of Georgia to fewer
than 100 today. In Azerbaijan, only 500 of the animals remain,
while fewer than 1,500 red deer are left
in Russia. Saiga antelope numbers in the North Caucasus Plain have
dropped from several hundred thousand at the middle of the
20th century to fewer than 20,000 today.
Participants of the second stakeholder workshop,
facilitated through CEPF investment,
held in January 2003 determined proximate threats and their root
causes in the Caucasus hotspot. The
major threats to biodiversity in the region are illegal logging,
fuel wood harvesting and the timber
trade; overgrazing; poaching and illegal wildlife trade;
overfishing; infrastructure development; and pollution of
rivers and wetlands. These threats lead
to habitat degradation, decline of species populations and
disruption of ecological processes - all
contributing to overall loss of biodiversity.
Illegal Logging, Fuel Wood Harvesting and the Timber Trade
Illegal logging, fuel wood harvesting and the timber trade
threaten biodiversity in the region’s
forests and lead to habitat degradation. While officially
sanctioned logging has actually
decreased in some areas in the past few years—in the North
Caucasus, for example, only 30 to 50
percent of the originally planned area is being logged—illegal
logging has increased. In Georgia, experts believe that
illegal logging (including fuel wood
harvesting) accounts for three times more than the official
quotas. In Armenia, as a result of the
energy crisis, 27,000 ha of forests were cut between 1992-1995,
comprising 8 percent of the entire
forest reserves of that country. The amount of timber and fuel
wood taken from forests in the Eastern Anatolian Province of
Turkey is nine times higher than forest
productivity. Fuel wood harvesting has increased nearly three
times in some areas compared to a decade
ago as a result of energy shortages and the economic crisis.
Rural populations are largely dependent on fuel wood
consumption for heating and cooking.
Illegal timber export is a serious problem, particularly for
Georgia and Russia, but official
estimates of exports are not available. Illegal logging leads to
decline in species composition, forest
degradation and overall habitat loss, impacting a number of plant
and animal species. Fuel wood harvesting
and consumption lead to forest degradation and
disappearance of certain species and contribute to forest
fires and global warming. The
Greater Caucasus, West Lesser Caucasus, East Lesser Caucasus and
Hyrcan corridors are the most impacted
by illegal or unsustainable logging and fuel wood harvesting.
In order to halt illegal logging, independent assessments
of the level of illegal logging and
timber exports need to be made. Possible measures to combat
illegal logging and trade include
increasing the capacity of customs and forest inspection agencies
to stop
illegal trade and monitor logging in forestry enterprises.
Information exchange between importing
and exporting countries, as well as transboundary cooperation and
NGO participation in monitoring the
timber trade would help curb illegal logging. Fines for
violators could be increased, while increasing the sale
price of timber would mean that fewer
trees would have to be cut to turn a profit. At the same time,
processing wood in the region into
construction materials, wood flooring, furniture and other goods
would fetch a higher price on regional
and international markets, eventually leading to lower
levels of timber extraction from forests. Measures to
reduce unsustainable fuel wood
harvesting include enforcing restrictions on fuel wood harvesting
near villages and reducing dependence on
fuel wood by providing energy alternatives such as natural gas.
Overgrazing
Overgrazing and uncontrolled livestock grazing threatens steppe,
subalpine and alpine ecosystems. A third
of pasturelands in the region are subject to erosion. Sheep
grazing in winter ranges and steppes and
semi-deserts of the eastern Caucasus has nearly tripled
in the past decade. Intensive grazing has resulted in
reduced species diversity and habitat
degradation. Secondary plant communities now occupy 80 percent of
grasslands in the
subalpine belt. The alpine belt is slightly better preserved.
Grazing of cattle in forested areas
disturbs undergrowth and creates competition for wild ungulates.
Overgrazing is causing environmental
damage in much of the hotspot, particularly in the Kuma-Manych,
Greater Caucasus, Javakheti, East Lesser Caucasus,
Iori-Mingechaur and Southern Uplands
corridors.
Measures to reduce the impacts of overgrazing include developing
sustainable rangeland management plans,
enforcing restrictions on grazing in protected areas and
prohibiting grazing in damaged fields
near rivers and on steep slopes. Furthermore, developing
opportunities for alternative sources of income would
reduce the need to keep large numbers of
livestock in some rural communities.
Poaching and the Illegal Wildlife Trade
Poaching and the illegal wildlife trade have increased
significantly as a result of the
economic crisis and the opening of the borders in the former
Soviet countries. Overhunting of legal
game species and poaching of rare species is widespread in
mountain regions, in particular. Government agencies set
quotas for game species without carrying
out appropriate research on game numbers and population dynamics.
Thus, quotas are often too high to ensure that viable
populations of game animals (mostly
ungulates) are maintained. Nature reserves are neither equipped
nor authorized to control poaching
outside of protected areas. Limitations of enforcement
capabilities in Turkey and Iran also
lead to uncontrolled hunting. Leopard,
brown bear, Caucasian red deer, bezoar goat and turs are heavily
poached in the Caucasus. There are no
more than 25 leopards left in the entire Caucasus region. Tur
populations, hunted for their horns and meat, have declined
in recent years and there are fewer than
200 Caucasian chamois in the Lesser Caucasus Range. Red deer
numbers
have fallen in the past few decades as well, particularly in the
southern part of the hotspot.
Lynx, otter, wild cat, fox and jackal are killed for their fur.
Rare species of falcons are captured and
sold abroad. Reptiles and amphibians like common tortoise,
Transcaucasian agama and Caucasian salamander have been collected
for decades, both for laboratory use and
the pet trade. Vipers have long been exploited for their venom.
Use of animal parts, such as saiga horns for oriental
medicines and leopard skins for
decoration, threatens several endangered species. Poaching and
unsustainable hunting are rampant in
nearly all the corridors. Measures to
reduce poaching include building capacity (training, equipment,
transportation) of existing ranger services, inspection
agencies and NGO groups to patrol areas
where poaching is prevalent. Anti-poaching units within
governmental inspection agencies and
civil groups could be created to monitor territories outside
protected areas.
Fines for poachers should be increased and prosecution of
violators enforced. New opportunities
for providing income to local communities through ecotourism and
sustainable resource use should be developed to reduce the
need for poaching. Illegal export of
animal derivatives should be halted by working with customs
agencies across borders and through the
TRAFFIC network to reduce demand on world markets.
Overfishing
Overfishing, mostly driven by poverty and international demand for
black-caviar, is widespread in the
Caspian Sea and spawning rivers. The caviar from one beluga
fetches as much as $30,000 on world
markets. Illegal fishing could cause some species of
sturgeon to go extinct within the next few years. It takes
nearly two decades for the sturgeon to
reach maturity, therefore overfishing has far-reaching impacts for
populations of these fish. Overfishing
is also a serious problem in the Black and Azov seas. A study
in the Black Sea found that the annual catch value to the fishing
industry declined by $300 million from
1980 to the mid-1990s. Poachers may exceed the legal catch quota
by 10 times. Fish inspection agencies
are often powerless to halt overfishing - either they
are corrupt and benefit from the business or they lack the
capacity to fight it. Overfishing and
illegal fishing also impact lakes and rivers. Fish populations
have been affected in
freshwater and marine habitats in the Caspian, Kuma-Manych, West
Lesser Caucasus and Hyrcan corridors.
Measures to halt overfishing include enacting and enforcing
bans on threatened fish species and
decreasing demand for threatened species on international markets
through public awareness campaigns.
Fines for illegal fishing should be increased and violators
prosecuted to the full extent of the law. Capacity
(training, equipment, transportation) of
marine and freshwater inspection agencies should be strengthened.
Fishing quotas should be established
based on independent scientific studies of reproductive capacity
of fish
populations. Alternative sources of income should be provided for
fishermen. Infrastructure Development
Infrastructure development, including roads, dams, channels
and pipelines, fragments natural
habitats and contributes to habitat loss. Draining wetlands and
digging channels
for agriculture and irrigation alters riparian ecosystems
irreversibly and leads to habitat loss.
Oil extraction in Baku Bay in the Caspian Corridor causes
pollution and habitat degradation. Plans
for construction of the Baku-Ceyhan pipeline will have negative
impacts for biodiversity. Certain provinces in Turkey have
experienced population booms in the past
10 years, leading to a growth in construction of residential
housing, industrial complexes and
infrastructure. A highway along the Black Sea Coast has
damaged marine ecosystems irreversibly and expansion of urban
areas destroys forest cover. Plans to
build a dam on the Chorokh River for irrigation or electricity
will result in enormous damage to
riparian ecosystems of one of the most important rivers in the
Turkish Caucasus. Infrastructure development threatens
natural habitats in the Caspian,
West Lesser Caucasus, Iori-Mingechaur and Arasbaran corridors.
Measures to mitigate impacts of infrastructure development include
carrying out independent environmental
impact assessments and monitoring, bringing public attention
to the environmental consequences of development projects
and encouraging development companies to
provide funds for protected areas and other conservation
measures in areas that will be disturbed by infrastructure
projects. Pollution of Rivers and
Wetlands Pollution of rivers and
wetlands is generally a result of run off from human settlements,
factories, farmlands and pastures. While the use of
pesticides and fertilizers in commercial
agriculture has declined significantly in the former Soviet
countries since 1990, use of chemicals
on private plots is growing. Manure from livestock is often
dumped directly into rivers, altering nutrient balances and
causing eutrophication of lakes. Waste
materials from timber production are also thrown into rivers at
logging and processing sites. Erosion
from farmlands, pastures and logged forests causes increased
turbidity in many rivers.
Large-scale industrial production has decreased dramatically in
the last decade as a result
of the economic crisis, leading to lower levels of pollution.
However, smaller factories generally do
not have the means to install effective waste management
mechanisms and equipment and runoff
waters are highly polluted. Pollution of wetlands and rivers
impacts breeding birds and fish populations. Pesticides and
fertilizers kill large numbers of
invertebrates and make their way up the food chain to birds and
even humans.
Pollution has impacted freshwater systems in the Kuma-Manych,
Arasbaran and Iori- Mingechaur
corridors. Pollution from oil extraction, run off and other
sources has compromised the integrity of
marine ecosystems in the Caspian, Azov and Black seas.
Ineffective water management is a serious problem for water
conservation in the East Lesser Caucasus
and Javakheti corridors. Measures to
reduce pollution of rivers and wetlands include increasing fines
for dumping polluted wastewater into
rivers and prosecuting violators. Civil society should be
involved in monitoring pollution levels in rivers and lakes
to determine sources. Dumping of manure
and other waste into rivers should be prohibited. Use of
pesticides
and other chemicals near waterways should be closely monitored by
independent groups. Conversion of lands
adjacent to rivers and lakes for agriculture should be prohibited.
Root Causes
A number of root causes are behind the proximate threats to
biodiversity (Figure 5). Root causes can
be broadly grouped into three categories: socioeconomic, political
and institutional. Poverty is perhaps
the most significant of the socioeconomic root causes,
leading to poaching, fuel wood consumption, illegal
logging, overgrazing and other threats.
Poverty forces people to be dependent on natural resources and use
resources
unsustainably to meet their basic needs. The lack of public
awareness and public involvement in
nature conservation is another reason people are more likely to
participate in poaching, overfishing and
other violations. Economically, the public has little
incentive to conserve firewood, water, or other resources.
Poor land use planning results in
overgrazing, pollution of waterways and inefficient infrastructure
development. Political root causes of
biodiversity degradation stem from gaps and contradictions in
legislation and the lack of a clear delineation of jurisdiction
for enforcement agencies. Political and
civil conflicts hinder cooperation on nature conservation and
military conflicts often result in
increased forest fires, logging, poaching and pollution. The lack
of transboundary cooperation between countries hinders
control of overfishing, illegal trade of
timber and wildlife and pollution of waterways.
Institutional root causes include ineffective
administrative institutions and enforcement
of legislation. Limited coordination among institutions and
lack of communication results in
duplication of efforts and misunderstandings. Insufficient
knowledge of
conservation issues among key stakeholders hinders environmental
protection efforts. Gaps in protected
areas networks and poor protected areas management leads to
poaching, illegal logging, overgrazing and other threats.
Insufficient research and monitoring
means that the extent of illegal logging, overfishing and poaching
is unknown and long-term impacts on
biodiversity are poorly understood.
Assessment of proximate threats and root causes helps to determine
the thematic focus of the CEPF niche.
Strategies should aim to address the root causes in order to
mitigate
threats in the corridors. Targeted programs that empower civil
society to improve management of
protected areas and capabilities of state conservation agencies
and increase transboundary coordination
will be important strategic directions for CEPF
investment. Programs to create alternative incomes for
local communities will be important to
reduce the public’s dependence on natural resource consumption.
Strategies
to increase awareness among decisionmakers and the public will
promote involvement in and support of
conservation activities. Training and support of NGOs and key
stakeholders will help them carry out important
conservation projects more efficiently
and in coordination with existing government efforts, thereby
maximizing the effectiveness of all
efforts. Tightly defined monitoring and research activities will
help us gain a better understanding of
the extent of threats to biodiversity and what measures
are needed to halt biodiversity loss.
ABBREVIATIONS USED
IN THE TEXT
BMZ German Ministry for Cooperation and Development
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBO Community-based organization
CENESTA Center for Sustainable Development (Iran)
CENN Caucasus Environmental NGO Network
CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund
CI Conservation International
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
ECONET Ecological network of protected areas
GCCW Georgian Center for Conservation of Wildlife
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIS Geographic Information System
GSIF Georgian Social Investment Fund
IBA Important Bird Area (according to BirdLife International)
ISAR Initiative for Social Action and Renewal in Eurasia
ISC Institute for Sustainable Communities
IUCN World Conservation Union
KfW German Bank for Reconstruction and Development
NACRES Noah’s Ark Center for Recovery of Endangered Species
(Georgia)
NGO Nongovernmental organization
REC Regional Environmental Centre for the Caucasus
TACIS Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent
States (EU)
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature |
