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Maximun Bilgi – Felsefe Sayfalar\u0131<\/span><\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n B\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130skender\u2019in egemenli\u011fi ile \u00f6zg\u00fcr ve ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z Yunan kent devletinin g\u00fcn\u00fc ger\u00e7ekten tarihe kar\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Onun ve politik erk i\u00e7in birbirleri ile d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015fen ard\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n egemenlikleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda Yunan kentlerinin ellerindeki \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fck ancak s\u00f6zde idi, ya da en az\u0131ndan her \u015feyin \u00fczerinde duran egemenin iyi niyetine ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 idi. \u0130\u015fte bu yeni politik durum ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak felsefede de bir etki yaratt\u0131. Hem Platon hem de Aristoteles Yunan Kentinin insanlar\u0131yd\u0131lar, ve onlar i\u00e7in birey; kentten ve kentin ya\u015fam\u0131ndan ayr\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclemezdi: kentte idi ki, birey ere\u011fine eri\u015fir, iyi ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcrd\u00fc. Ama \u00f6zg\u00fcr kent daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir kozmopolitan b\u00fct\u00fcne kayna\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman, yaln\u0131zca Stoac\u0131l\u0131kta g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz gibi d\u00fcnya vatanda\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ideali ile kozmopolitanizmin de\u011fil, ama bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra bireycili\u011fin de \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 ancak do\u011fal olabilirdi.<\/p>\n Ger\u00e7ekte bu iki \u00f6\u011fe, kozmopolitanl\u0131k ve bireycilik, s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya birbirlerine ba\u011fl\u0131 idiler. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Kent-Devletinin Platon ve Aristoteles’in d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fckleri gibi s\u0131k\u0131 ve her \u015feyi kucaklayan ya\u015fam\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6kt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ve yurtta\u015flar daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00fct\u00fcne kayna\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 zaman, birey ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak ba\u015f\u0131 bo\u015f kald\u0131, kent-devletindeki ba\u011flar\u0131ndan koptu. B\u00f6ylece kozmopolitan bir toplumda felsefeden beklenebilecek tek \u015fey ilgisini bireyde yo\u011funla\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131 onun ya\u015famda k\u0131lavuzluk istemine kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 olacakt\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu ya\u015fam art\u0131k g\u00f6reli olarak k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir kent-ailesinde de\u011fil ama b\u00fcy\u00fck bir toplumda ya\u015fan\u0131yor, ve buna g\u00f6re felsefe ba\u015fat olarak t\u00f6rel ve k\u0131lg\u0131sal e\u011filimler sergiliyordu. -Stoac\u0131l\u0131k ve Epik\u00fcrc\u00fcl\u00fckte oldu\u011fu gibi.-<\/p>\n Metafiziksel ve ruhsal kurgu d\u00fc\u015fme e\u011filimine girdi: kendileri u\u011fruna de\u011fil ama ancak t\u00f6rebilim i\u00e7in bir temel ve haz\u0131rl\u0131k sa\u011flamalar\u0131 i\u015fleminde birer ilgi nesnesi oldular. T\u00f6rel alan \u00fczerinde bu yo\u011funla\u015fma yeni okullar\u0131n metafiziksel kavramlar\u0131n\u0131 kendi ba\u015flar\u0131na yeni kurgular \u00fcretmeye giri\u015fmesizin ni\u00e7in ba\u015fka d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrlerden \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 alm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131n\u0131 anlamay\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131r. Ger\u00e7ekten de bu bak\u0131mdan geriye \u00f6n -Sokratiklere- d\u00f6nd\u00fcler.<\/p>\n Stoac\u0131l\u0131k Herakleitos’un fizi\u011fine ve Epik\u00fcrc\u00fcl\u00fck ve Demokritos\u2019un atomculu\u011funa ba\u015fvuruyordu. Bundan da \u00f6tesi, Aristoteles-sonras\u0131 Okullar en az\u0131ndan belli bir d\u00fczeyde giderek t\u00f6rel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve e\u011filimleri i\u00e7in bile \u00d6n-Sokratiklere d\u00f6nd\u00fcler. Stoac\u0131lar Kynik t\u00f6rebilimden ve Epik\u00fcrc\u00fcler Kraniklerden \u00f6d\u00fcn\u00e7 ald\u0131lar. Bu t\u00f6rel ve k\u0131lg\u0131sal ilgi, Roma d\u00f6neminde Aristoteles-sonras\u0131 okullar\u0131n geli\u015fiminde \u00f6zellikle belirgindir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Romal\u0131lar ve Yunanl\u0131lar gibi kurgul ve metafiziksel yanlar\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler de\u011fil, tersine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 olarak k\u0131lg\u0131ya y\u00f6nelik insanlard\u0131.<\/p>\n Eski Romal\u0131lar karakter \u00fczerinde diretiyorlard\u0131 -kurgu onlara biraz yabanc\u0131 idi- ve Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011funda, cumhuriyetin \u00f6nceki idealleri ve gelenekleri s\u00f6nd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc zaman, bireye \u00e7alkant\u0131l\u0131 bir toplumsal s\u00fcre\u00e7 i\u00e7erisinde ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131 do\u011fru olarak y\u00f6nlendirmesini ve belli bir tinsel ve ahlaksal ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k \u00fczerine dayanan bir ilke ve eylem tutarl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmesini sa\u011flayabilecek davran\u0131\u015f kurallar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flama g\u00f6revi s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn tam anlam\u0131yla felsefecilere d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n Nietzsche, Hellenistik ve di\u011fer Yunan felsefesi hakk\u0131nda \u015fu yorumu yapar: ”Yunanl\u0131lar, ger\u00e7ekten sa\u011flam bir millet olarak, felsefe yapmakla, b\u00fct\u00fcn ba\u015fka milletlerden \u00e7ok daha b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde felsefeyi me\u015fru k\u0131ld\u0131lar ama vaktinde duramad\u0131lar, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc kuru ihtiyarl\u0131k \u00e7a\u011flar\u0131nda felsefeden, sadece H\u0131ristiyan dogmati\u011finin sofuca ak\u0131l oyunlar\u0131n\u0131 ve pek kutsal k\u0131l\u0131 k\u0131rk yarmalar\u0131n\u0131 anlamakla beraber, kendilerini felsefenin ate\u015fli taraftarlar\u0131 olarak g\u00f6sterdiler. Vaktinde duramad\u0131klar\u0131ndan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcd\u00fcr ki, kendilerinden sonra gelen barbar aleme g\u00f6rd\u00fckleri hizmeti kendi elleriyle ufaltt\u0131lar.”<\/p>\n Aristoteles’ten sonra Hellenistik felsefe, iki do\u011frultuda geli\u015fmi\u015ftir. Bir yandan bir ahlak felsefesi, \u00f6b\u00fcr yandan da pozitif bilimler \u00fczerinde bilgince bir ara\u015ft\u0131rma olmu\u015ftur. Platon ve Aristoteles’in okullar\u0131 da (Akademia ile Lykeion) bu geli\u015fmeye ayak uydurmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n Akademia ve Lykeum Theophrastos ve ondan sonra gelenler Aristoteles’in ve eski yazarlar\u0131n yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131n toplu incelemesine ba\u015flarlar. Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, daha \u00f6nce anlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00f6\u011freti d\u00fczenleyicili\u011fini do\u011furur. M.S I. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Aristoteles\u00e7ilik yeniden soluklan\u0131r. Rodoslu Andronikus, Aristoteles’in yap\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 yayar.<\/p>\n ARKES\u0130LAOS Pyyhon’un \u00f6\u011fretisini de\u011fi\u015ftirmeden b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc ile benimseyen Arkesilaos, bir Akademial\u0131 olarak Platon felsefesi \u00fczerinde durup, bu felsefenin, \u00f6zelliklede Sokrates’in y\u00f6nteminin \u015f\u00fcpheci y\u00f6nlerini belirtmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131r.<\/p>\n Sokrates hep kendisinin bir \u015fey bilmedi\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrerdi: Kendisi konu\u015fmalar\u0131nda hi\u00e7bir sav ileri s\u00fcrmez, savlar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndakine s\u00f6yletirdi; sonrada bir tak\u0131m sorular ve itirazlarla ona bir \u015fey bilmedi\u011fini itiraf ettirirdi. Platon’un gen\u00e7lik diyaloglar\u0131nda buldu\u011fumuz bu y\u00f6ntem, Arkesilaos’a g\u00f6re, ”her sav\u0131, bundan yana ve buna kar\u015f\u0131 olan e\u015fit g\u00fc\u00e7te kan\u0131tlarla destekleyebilece\u011fimizi” ileri s\u00fcren \u015f\u00fcpheci ilkenin bir anlat\u0131m\u0131d\u0131r. Nitekim Arkesilaos’un kendisi de tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda Sokrates’in bu y\u00f6ntemini kullan\u0131rm\u0131\u015f. Yaln\u0131z; Sokrates gibi, kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndakini kendi \u00fczerinde bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye zorlamak, sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 kendisinin bulmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7mak i\u00e7in de\u011fil de, onu \u015f\u00fcpheci g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fe ge\u00e7irmek i\u00e7in bu y\u00f6ntemi kullan\u0131rm\u0131\u015f.<\/p>\n Arkesilaos’un bilgi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 as\u0131l niteli\u011fini, ba\u015fl\u0131ca kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 Stoa ile daha do\u011frusu Zenon ile olan sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131nda kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Stoa’ya g\u00f6re ger\u00e7ek \u00fczerine olan bilgimiz duyu alg\u0131lar\u0131na dayan\u0131r, bu bilginin kayna\u011f\u0131 buras\u0131d\u0131r. Yaln\u0131z, b\u00fct\u00fcn duyu tasavvurlar\u0131 de\u011fil de, ancak kataleptik tasavvurlar do\u011fruyu sa\u011flarlar, ancak ”kavranm\u0131\u015f” ruhumuzda sa\u011flam k\u00f6k salarak ”aklanm\u0131\u015f” olan tasavvur (katalepsiz) besbellidir, apa\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla kesindir, sars\u0131lmazd\u0131r; katalepsiz do\u011fru bilginin \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n Stoa’n\u0131n bu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 Arkesilaos \u015f\u00f6yle ele\u015ftirir: bir tasavvurun do\u011fru mu yanl\u0131\u015f m\u0131 oldu\u011funu, yani bu tasavvurun varolan bir \u015feyle mi yoksa varolmayan bir \u015feyle mi ili\u015fkili oldu\u011funu bize g\u00fcvenle bildirecek b\u00f6yle bir do\u011fruluk \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc yoktur. Duyu yan\u0131lmalar\u0131nda, r\u00fcyalarda, delilikte de tasavvur mutlak bir apa\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131k niteli\u011fi ta\u015f\u0131rlar ve bizi kendilerini onamaya zorlarlar, oysa bunlar yanl\u0131\u015f tasavvurlard\u0131r. Bu da g\u00f6steriyor ki, tasavvurumuzun yanl\u0131\u015f m\u0131, do\u011fru mu oldu\u011funu hi\u00e7bir zaman bilemeyiz. Bu y\u00fczden stoal\u0131lar\u0131n do\u011fruluk kriteriumu i\u015fe yarayan bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc de\u011fil. Arkesilaos’un bilgi teorisi, hemen hemen, dogmatizmin ba\u015f temsilcisi Stoa’ya kar\u015f\u0131 yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu ele\u015ftirmede sona erer.<\/p>\n Karneades Karneades’in tart\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 Khrysippos (281-208) Stoa’n\u0131n ikinci kurucusu say\u0131l\u0131r. Khrysipposenon ile Kleantes’in) \u00f6\u011fretilerini tamamlam\u0131\u015f, geni\u015f bilgisi, diyalektikteki b\u00fcy\u00fck ustal\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131na kadar iyice i\u015flenmi\u015f bir sistem kurmu\u015ftur. Bu sistem, bundan b\u00f6yle, Stoa’n\u0131n ana \u00e7izgileri ile de\u011fi\u015fmeyen kadrosu \u00f6z\u00fc olarak ta ilk milat y\u00fczy\u0131llar\u0131na kadar ayakta kalacakt\u0131r. Khrysippos Kilikya’ya Soloi’ni ya da Tarsus’su imi\u015f. Ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc bir bilgisi, \u015fa\u015f\u0131lacak bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Khrysippos’a g\u00f6re felsefe, bilgeli\u011fe varmak i\u00e7in bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, bir u\u011fra\u015fmad\u0131r; felsefe, insan ve Tanr\u0131 ile ilgili \u015feyler \u00fczerine bir bilimdir. Bundan dolay\u0131 da fizik, ahlaktan sonra gelir ve tanr\u0131 ile bilgiler, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckleri y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, en sonda yer almal\u0131d\u0131r. Bununla birlikte Khrysippos bilgi dallar\u0131n\u0131n Stoa’ya yerle\u015fmi\u015f olan s\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131 bozmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Mant\u0131k onunla Stoa’ya b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; ama onun i\u00e7in de as\u0131l \u00f6nemli olan bilgi \u00f6\u011fretisidir ve bunun a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k merkezi de ”do\u011frulu\u011fun \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc” (kriteriumu) sorunudur.<\/p>\n Karneades’e ba\u015fl\u0131ca ele\u015ftirmesini yine Stoal\u0131lar\u0131n bu ”do\u011frulu\u011fun kriteriumu” kavram\u0131na, kataleptik tasavvur anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na y\u00f6nelmi\u015ftir. Ona g\u00f6re, do\u011fru ve yanl\u0131\u015f tasavvurlar\u0131 birbirinden ay\u0131rt edebilecek g\u00fcvenilir bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc, bir belirti elimizde yok. Karneades Stoa’n\u0131n yaln\u0131z bir do\u011fruluk anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 ele\u015ftirmekle kalmam\u0131\u015f, \u00f6\u011fretinin b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcne kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u015e\u00fcphecili\u011fini, Arkesilaos ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde, \u00e7ok daha ilke bak\u0131m\u0131ndan temellendirmi\u015f olan Karneades i\u00e7in g\u00fcvenilecek bir do\u011fru \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc yoktur. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc duyu alg\u0131lar\u0131nda ya da d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmede (ak\u0131lda) aranabilir. Duyu alg\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n hepsi relatiftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, ayn\u0131 bir kule uzaktan yuvarlak, yak\u0131ndan d\u00f6rt k\u00f6\u015feli g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr, ayn\u0131 bir gemi \u00fczerinde bulunana duruyor, k\u0131y\u0131da bulunana y\u00fcr\u00fcyor g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr; b\u00f6ylece her alg\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131na, kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131labilir. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmenin (akl\u0131n) de g\u00fcvenilir bir kaynak, bir dayanak olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermek i\u00e7in, Karneades dialektik g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckleri ele al\u0131p Megaral\u0131lar\u0131n ileri s\u00fcrd\u00fckleri \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131, bozuk sonu\u00e7 \u00e7\u0131karmalar\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Bu y\u00fczden d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ile yap\u0131lan belirlemeler de alg\u0131lar\u0131nkinden daha az relatif de\u011filler.<\/p>\n Stoal\u0131lar; bir \u00f6nerme (axioma) ya do\u011frudur ya da yanl\u0131\u015ft\u0131r diyorlard\u0131. Buna kar\u015f\u0131 Karneades ”yalanc\u0131 sofismi” ile \u00e7\u0131kar; bu \u00f6nerme hem do\u011fru hem yanl\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sonra her tan\u0131tlama, esasta bir kabule dayan\u0131r, ama bu kabul\u00fcnde yeniden tan\u0131tlanmas\u0131 gerekir. B\u00f6ylece d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce de d\u00f6n\u00fcp dola\u015f\u0131p ya sonsuz olarak geriye gitmek zorunda kal\u0131r\u0131z, ya bir d\u00f6ng\u00fc i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015feriz, ya da tan\u0131tlanmam\u0131\u015f bir kabul ile kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131r\u0131z. Buna g\u00f6re: ”do\u011fru” ne duyularla kavran\u0131r, ne de ak\u0131lla \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131labilir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc duyularla edinilen \u015feyin ”ger\u00e7ek” olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hi\u00e7bir zaman bilemeyiz; ak\u0131lla \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mda da hi\u00e7bir zaman son, ko\u015fulsuz, mutlak olarak ge\u00e7ersiz olan bir \u015feye varamay\u0131z. Bilgimizin bu iki kayna\u011f\u0131 yaln\u0131z ba\u015flar\u0131na bu i\u015fi ba\u015faram\u0131yorlarsa, beraber olduklar\u0131nda, yani iki ”aldat\u0131c\u0131” bir araya geldi\u011finde de yine bir \u015fey yapamazlar.<\/p>\n Bir Stoal\u0131, Karneades’e ”sen do\u011fru bilinemez diyorsun ama hi\u00e7 olmazsa -bu do\u011fru bilinemez- s\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcn do\u011fru ve bilinen bir \u015fey olmas\u0131 gereki” demi\u015f. Buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k Karneades, kendi \u00f6nermesinin de kural d\u0131\u015f\u0131 kalamayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemi\u015f; yani kendi sav\u0131n\u0131n da mutlak do\u011frulu\u011fu yok, bu bak\u0131mdan ancak olas\u0131l\u0131 bir de\u011feri var; bu da ancak s\u00fcbjektif bir kan\u0131. Burada Karneades’in olas\u0131l\u0131k \u00f6\u011fretisiyle (probabilism) kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmaktay\u0131z. Olas\u0131l\u0131k, bilinemeyen do\u011frunun, bile kapal\u0131 olan do\u011frunun bilgisinin yerine ge\u00e7en \u015feydir ve pratik hayat i\u00e7in teorik temel budur.<\/p>\n Bu anlay\u0131\u015fa Karneades, tasavvurda br s\u00fcbjektif, bir de objektif y\u00f6n ay\u0131rmakla varm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: her tasavvur ilkin objenin bir bilgisi, bir yans\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r; ikinci olarak sujektif bir \u015feydir, sujenin bir durumudur. Objektif olarak tasavvur do\u011fru ya da yanl\u0131\u015f, ger\u00e7ek ya da ger\u00e7ek de\u011fildir; s\u00fcbjektif bak\u0131mdan da az ya da \u00e7ok olas\u0131d\u0131r, yani bizde az ya da \u00e7ok bir inanma yarat\u0131r. Bize d\u0131\u015far\u0131daki bir objeyi az ya da \u00e7ok kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. \u0130\u015fte g\u00fcnl\u00fck hayat\u0131m\u0131zda, pratik eylemlerimizde biz bu olas\u0131l\u0131k kriteriumuna y\u00f6neliriz ve y\u00f6nelmemizde gerekir. Bize do\u011frulu\u011fu olas\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir tasavvuru, bu tasavvur ba\u015fkalar\u0131 ile \u00e7eli\u015fik olmad\u0131k\u00e7a, kabul eder ve ona uyar\u0131z. Yaln\u0131z, bu kabul\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn bir san\u0131 (doxa) oldu\u011funu da bilmeliyizdir. Bundan dolay\u0131 \u015f\u00fcpheci bir bilgenin \u00f6zel belirtileri \u015funlar olabilir: Zekice bir ihtiyat, her y\u00f6n\u00fcnden g\u00f6rmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak, bilgimizin, bilgimize g\u00fcvenimizin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 bilmek, b\u00fct\u00fcn olanaklar\u0131 hesaba katmak.<\/p>\n KU\u015eKUCULAR Ku\u015fkuculu\u011fun ahlaksal sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 da vard\u0131r: madem d\u00fcnya da de\u011fi\u015fik bir \u015fey yoktur, duygu ve isteklerimizi de yok etmeliyiz. \u00d6l\u00fcmdeki duygusuzlu\u011fa isteksizli\u011fe ula\u015fmal\u0131y\u0131z. Kurgusal d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyi ve sonu\u00e7lar \u00e7\u0131karma eylemini de ortadan kald\u0131rmal\u0131y\u0131z. Bundan dolay\u0131 Pirrhon hi\u00e7 yazmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n Timon Epikuros Epikuros’un \u00f6\u011fretisi M.\u00d6 3. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Metrodoros, Hermarkhos, Polystrates taraf\u0131ndan s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr. M.\u00d6 2. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Apollodoros ve Philodemos Epikuros’un \u00f6\u011fretisi yayarlar. Latin ozan\u0131 Lucretius’un dizelerinde ve \u00f6zellikle \u015feylerin do\u011fas\u0131nda Epikuros\u00e7ulu\u011fun bilimsel \u00f6\u011fretilerine yeniden rastlan\u0131r. Epikuros’un \u00e7e\u015fitli kesin bilgi bi\u00e7imleri a\u00e7\u0131klan\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr bilgilerin en alt basama\u011f\u0131nda duyumlar vard\u0131r (ac\u0131l\u0131k, tatl\u0131l\u0131k v.b). en y\u00fcksekte ise sezgi bulunur. Epikuros, evrenin yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klarken Demokritos’un atom kuram\u0131n\u0131 yeniden g\u00fcndeme getirir: Evrendeki her \u015feyi yapan atomlar sonsuz bir devinim i\u00e7indedirler. Bazen, \u00f6nceden kestirilmesi olanaks\u0131z donan\u0131mlar yaparlar. Bunlara ”atomlar\u0131n sapmas\u0131” denir. B\u00f6ylece Epikuros do\u011fa yasalar\u0131n\u0131n salt\u0131k olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, evrende zaman zaman ta\u015fmalar bulundu\u011funu da vurgular.<\/p>\n Ahlak\u0131n amac\u0131, ac\u0131lar\u0131 ve s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 ortadan kald\u0131rmak, ruhu dinginli\u011fe ula\u015ft\u0131rmakt\u0131r. Bilge isteklerini yaparak, onlar\u0131 doyurarak dinginli\u011fe ula\u015f\u0131r. Epikuros ahlak\u0131, ama\u00e7ta Stoa ahlak\u0131na benzer. Ayr\u0131l\u0131k ama\u00e7lardad\u0131r. Epikuros\u00e7ulukta zevkler derece derecedir. Bilge odur ki, zevklerin hesab\u0131n\u0131 ustaca yaparak onlardan en \u00e7ok ho\u015flanmay\u0131 becerebilsin. Sonunda Epikuros’un \u015fu s\u00f6z\u00fcne var\u0131l\u0131r: ”En b\u00fcy\u00fck zevk yan\u0131nda hi\u00e7 ac\u0131 ve s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131 getirmeyendir.” Her zevk, az \u00e7ok bir s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131yla birlikte gelece\u011fine g\u00f6re Epikuros\u00e7uluk, s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131dan kurtulmak i\u00e7in en sonunda d\u00fcnyadan kopmay\u0131 \u00f6\u011f\u00fctleyecektir.<\/p>\n ESK\u0130 STOA \u00d6\u011frencilerinden \u00e7o\u011fu Zenonun \u00f6\u011fretisini az \u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015fler, Peripatos\u00e7u ve Kynik felsefeye yakla\u015ft\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Yaln\u0131z Zenon \u00f6ld\u00fckten sonra okul m\u00fcd\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde yerine ge\u00e7en Assos’u Kleanthes, \u00f6\u011fretiyi b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle benimseyip az\u0131msanamayacak bir ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131kla geli\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Zenon, \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fc azla yetinen ya\u015fay\u0131\u015f\u0131yla Atina’da b\u00fcy\u00fck bir sayg\u0131 kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130ntihar ederek \u00f6lm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n Stoa, Hellenizmin tipik felsefesi say\u0131l\u0131r; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Atina’ya do\u011fudan gelmi\u015f kimseler taraf\u0131ndan Attika felsefesinin ana d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri ile i\u015flenmi\u015ftir. Ba\u015fka bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi de Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu’nda en yayg\u0131n bir felsefe olu\u015fudur. Stoa \u00f6\u011fretisinin k\u00f6kleri Kynik felsefesidir ama b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn bu \u00e7er\u00e7eve de kalm\u0131\u015f, yer yer onunla belli bir kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131k halindedir de. Kynizm de oldu\u011fu gibi Stoa i\u00e7inde insan\u0131n ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ana d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncedir ve sonuna kadar ana d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce olarak kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak Stoa’n\u0131n kurucusu Zenon bu ana d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye bir yandan sa\u011flam teorik bir temel kazand\u0131rmak, bunu \u00e7e\u015fitli y\u00f6nlerinden felsefi olarak temellendirmek istemi\u015f, \u00f6te yandan da bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyi insan yarad\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 sosyal i\u00e7 g\u00fcd\u00fclere, duygular\u0131yla uzla\u015ft\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu yapmak istediklerinin ikisini de Sokrates ile Platon’nun felsefelerinde bulmu\u015ftur. Bunlar ”do\u011faya uygun ya\u015fama” kavram\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koymu\u015flard\u0131.<\/p>\n Stoa Ahlak\u0131 kendi kendine yeten bilgi ideali ile individualist bir \u00f6\u011fretidir. Ancak \u00f6b\u00fcr yandan da ”do\u011fan\u0131n yasas\u0131na ba\u011flanma” kavram\u0131, bu individualism ile denge kuran bir kar\u015f\u0131 a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k gibidir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc ayn\u0131 yasaya ba\u011fl\u0131 olma y\u00fcz\u00fcnden erdemli ki\u015filer yaln\u0131zl\u0131ktan kurtulmu\u015f, bir beraberlik i\u00e7inde toplanm\u0131\u015f, bulu\u015fmu\u015f olurlar. Bundan dolay\u0131 Zenon insan\u0131n topluluk halinde ya\u015fama gereksemesini do\u011fal bir akla uygun bir i\u00e7 g\u00fcd\u00fc diye anlar ve kabul eder. Yaln\u0131z ona g\u00f6re, bu gerekseme, bir yandan bilge ki\u015filer aras\u0131ndaki dostluklar, \u00f6b\u00fcr yandan da b\u00fct\u00fcn ak\u0131ll\u0131 insanlar\u0131n toplulu\u011fu \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde giderilmelidir. Bu ikisinin aras\u0131nda kalan ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 uluslar\u0131n kendilerine g\u00f6re devletler i\u00e7inde toplanmalar\u0131, bu topluluk bi\u00e7imleri ilgisiz kal\u0131nacak \u015feylerdir.<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Maximun Bilgi – Felsefe Sayfaları Büyük İskender’in egemenliği ile özgür ve bağımsız Yunan kent devletinin günü gerçekten tarihe karışmıştı. Onun ve politik erk için birbirleri ile dövüşen ardıllarının egemenlikleri sırasında Yunan kentlerinin ellerindeki özgürlük ancak sözde idi, ya da en azından her şeyin üzerinde duran egemenin iyi niyetine bağımlı idi. İşte bu yeni politik durum […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_bbp_topic_count":0,"_bbp_reply_count":0,"_bbp_total_topic_count":0,"_bbp_total_reply_count":0,"_bbp_voice_count":0,"_bbp_anonymous_reply_count":0,"_bbp_topic_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_reply_count_hidden":0,"_bbp_forum_subforum_count":0,"ocean_post_layout":"","ocean_both_sidebars_style":"","ocean_both_sidebars_content_width":0,"ocean_both_sidebars_sidebars_width":0,"ocean_sidebar":"0","ocean_second_sidebar":"0","ocean_disable_margins":"enable","ocean_add_body_class":"","ocean_shortcode_before_top_bar":"","ocean_shortcode_after_top_bar":"","ocean_shortcode_before_header":"","ocean_shortcode_after_header":"","ocean_has_shortcode":"","ocean_shortcode_after_title":"","ocean_shortcode_before_footer_widgets":"","ocean_shortcode_after_footer_widgets":"","ocean_shortcode_before_footer_bottom":"","ocean_shortcode_after_footer_bottom":"","ocean_display_top_bar":"default","ocean_display_header":"default","ocean_header_style":"","ocean_center_header_left_menu":"0","ocean_custom_header_template":"0","ocean_custom_logo":0,"ocean_custom_retina_logo":0,"ocean_custom_logo_max_width":0,"ocean_custom_logo_tablet_max_width":0,"ocean_custom_logo_mobile_max_width":0,"ocean_custom_logo_max_height":0,"ocean_custom_logo_tablet_max_height":0,"ocean_custom_logo_mobile_max_height":0,"ocean_header_custom_menu":"0","ocean_menu_typo_font_family":"0","ocean_menu_typo_font_subset":"","ocean_menu_typo_font_size":0,"ocean_menu_typo_font_size_tablet":0,"ocean_menu_typo_font_size_mobile":0,"ocean_menu_typo_font_size_unit":"px","ocean_menu_typo_font_weight":"","ocean_menu_typo_font_weight_tablet":"","ocean_menu_typo_font_weight_mobile":"","ocean_menu_typo_transform":"","ocean_menu_typo_transform_tablet":"","ocean_menu_typo_transform_mobile":"","ocean_menu_typo_line_height":0,"ocean_menu_typo_line_height_tablet":0,"ocean_menu_typo_line_height_mobile":0,"ocean_menu_typo_line_height_unit":"","ocean_menu_typo_spacing":0,"ocean_menu_typo_spacing_tablet":0,"ocean_menu_typo_spacing_mobile":0,"ocean_menu_typo_spacing_unit":"","ocean_menu_link_color":"","ocean_menu_link_color_hover":"","ocean_menu_link_color_active":"","ocean_menu_link_background":"","ocean_menu_link_hover_background":"","ocean_menu_link_active_background":"","ocean_menu_social_links_bg":"","ocean_menu_social_hover_links_bg":"","ocean_menu_social_links_color":"","ocean_menu_social_hover_links_color":"","ocean_disable_title":"default","ocean_disable_heading":"default","ocean_post_title":"","ocean_post_subheading":"","ocean_post_title_style":"","ocean_post_title_background_color":"","ocean_post_title_background":0,"ocean_post_title_bg_image_position":"","ocean_post_title_bg_image_attachment":"","ocean_post_title_bg_image_repeat":"","ocean_post_title_bg_image_size":"","ocean_post_title_height":0,"ocean_post_title_bg_overlay":0.5,"ocean_post_title_bg_overlay_color":"","ocean_disable_breadcrumbs":"default","ocean_breadcrumbs_color":"","ocean_breadcrumbs_separator_color":"","ocean_breadcrumbs_links_color":"","ocean_breadcrumbs_links_hover_color":"","ocean_display_footer_widgets":"default","ocean_display_footer_bottom":"default","ocean_custom_footer_template":"0","ocean_post_oembed":"","ocean_post_self_hosted_media":"","ocean_post_video_embed":"","ocean_link_format":"","ocean_link_format_target":"self","ocean_quote_format":"","ocean_quote_format_link":"post","ocean_gallery_link_images":"off","ocean_gallery_id":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[126],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-9640","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-aydin-adige-abhaz-gencligi","entry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9640","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=9640"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9640\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9642,"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9640\/revisions\/9642"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=9640"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=9640"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=9640"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
\n<\/b>
\nPlaton’un okulu Akademia bu \u00e7a\u011fda varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 koruyan okullar\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda gelir. D\u00f6nemin ba\u015f\u0131nda Akademia’n\u0131n materyalizme y\u00f6neldi\u011fi g\u00f6zlenir. Sonralar\u0131 Arkesilaos, okulun yeni bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koyar: ku\u015fkuculuk. Ku\u015fkucu Akademia’n\u0131n en \u00f6nemli d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrleri, Arkesilaos ve Karneades’tir. Karneades Sokrates gibi hi\u00e7 yazmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Onu, \u00f6\u011frencisi Klitomak ve Latin yazar \u00c7i\u00e7ero arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile tan\u0131yoruz.<\/p>\n![](\"http:\/\/www.circassiancenter.com\/cc-turkiye\/yorum\/parag-ara.gif\")
<\/p>\n
\n<\/b>
\nArkesilaos ya da Arkesilas (316-241). Aeolia b\u00f6lgesinde Pitane’de do\u011fmu\u015f. \u00d6nce Aristoteles’in en yak\u0131n dostu, i\u015f arkada\u015f\u0131 ve ard\u0131l\u0131 Theophrastos’un \u00f6\u011frencisi olmu\u015f, sonra da Akademia’ya girmi\u015f. Pyrrhon’un \u00e7ok etkisi alt\u0131nda kalm\u0131\u015f. Keskin zekal\u0131, alayc\u0131 bir hatip olarak \u00fcn salm\u0131\u015f.<\/p>\n
\n<\/b>
\n\u015e\u00fcpheci \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r, Arkesilaos’un Akademia ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda yerine ge\u00e7enlerden Kyreneli Karneades’e (214-129) b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ilerleme g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. O da Arkesilaos gibi ba\u015fl\u0131ca Stoa ile tart\u0131\u015f\u0131r; Arkesilaos Zenon ile sava\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131, Karneades ise Khrysippos ile sava\u015f\u0131r.Arkesilaos’un Stoa’ya kar\u015f\u0131 a\u00e7m\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu polemik ile bu iki \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r aras\u0131nda ba\u015flayan tart\u0131\u015fma, ta milattan \u00f6nceki birinci y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar s\u00fcrecek, sonunda iki \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r aras\u0131nda bir uzla\u015fmaya var\u0131lacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n<\/p>\n
\n<\/b>
\nPirrhon
\n<\/b>
\nEleal\u0131 Pirrhon (M.\u00d6 365-275) ku\u015fkuculu\u011fun kurucusudur. Sokrates gibi oda hi\u00e7 yazmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerini \u00f6\u011frencileri arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile tan\u0131yoruz. Hekim Sextus Empiricus, Pirrhoncu betimlemelerde ku\u015fkucu \u00f6\u011fretileri \u00f6zetlemi\u015ftir.(M.\u00d6 3. Yy) Pirrhon’a g\u00f6re evrendeki her \u015fey ayn\u0131d\u0131r. De\u011fi\u015fik bir \u015fey yoktur. Evren ne d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ile kavranabilir ne de \u00fcst\u00fcne bir yarg\u0131ya var\u0131labilir. Hi\u00e7bir tutana\u011f\u0131m\u0131z yoktur, hi\u00e7bir tarafa y\u00f6nelemeyiz. Ger\u00e7e\u011fi do\u011frudan do\u011fruya bilemedi\u011fimize g\u00f6re, ger\u00e7ek \u00fcst\u00fcne yarg\u0131lardan sak\u0131nmal\u0131y\u0131z.<\/p>\n
\n<\/b>
\nG\u00f6rebildi\u011fimiz denli, bu kan\u0131t, orta-\u00e7a\u011flara egemen olan Aristoteles felsefesini k\u00f6k\u00fcnden koparm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle ku\u015fkucu olmayan ki\u015filerce savunulan kimi ku\u015fkuculuk bi\u00e7imlerini, eski \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ku\u015fkucular\u0131 g\u00f6rememi\u015flerdi. Onlar, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerden ku\u015fkulanmam\u0131\u015flar ya da kendi kan\u0131lar\u0131nca, yaln\u0131zca g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerle ilgili dolays\u0131z bilgimizi dile getiren \u00f6nermeleri ku\u015fkulu bulmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Timon’un yap\u0131tlar\u0131ndan \u00e7o\u011fu yok olmu\u015ftur. Elimizde bulunan iki par\u00e7a bu noktay\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayacakt\u0131r. Bunlardan biri ”g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn t\u00fcm\u00fcyle ge\u00e7erli” oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yler, \u00f6b\u00fcr\u00fcndeyse \u015funlar okunmaktad\u0131r: ”Bal tatl\u0131d\u0131r” demem, ”Bal tatl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr”, ”Bal\u0131n tatl\u0131 oldu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcrmeyi hay\u0131rl\u0131yorum. Onun tatl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle evetlerim” derim.<\/p>\n
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\nM.\u00d6 341-270 y\u0131llar\u0131nda ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 san\u0131lan Epikuros’un M.\u00d6 310’a Mytilene’e kurdu\u011fu ve M.\u00d6 306 y\u0131l\u0131nda Atina’ya ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 okul kitapl\u0131klar\u0131 ve s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131 ile ger\u00e7ek bir okul de\u011fil, bir karde\u015fler toplulu\u011fudur. Belli bir felsefeyi benimseyenlerin topland\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir manast\u0131r g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcndedir. Atina’daki bah\u00e7e, 2.6 kg g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f verilip karde\u015flerce sat\u0131n al\u0131narak toplant\u0131lar yap\u0131lmaya ba\u015flan\u0131nca buraya ”bah\u00e7e okulu” dendi. Epikuros, Stoac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n kurucusu Zenon’dan be\u015f alt\u0131 ya\u015f b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. Zenon bir Asyal\u0131d\u0131r. Bah\u00e7enin hocas\u0131 ile belli ba\u015fl\u0131 arkada\u015flar\u0131 gibi Atina’n\u0131n k\u00f6kl\u00fc ailesindendir.<\/p>\n<\/p>\n
\n<\/b>
\nK\u0131br\u0131sl\u0131 Zenon
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\nHellenistik \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n en \u00f6nemli felsefe \u00f6\u011fretisi Stoa’d\u0131r (stoisizm). Bu \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r\u0131n kurucusu K\u0131br\u0131sl\u0131 Zenon’dur. Kendisi bir t\u00fcccar o\u011flu imi\u015f; 314 y\u0131llar\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda Atina’ya gelmi\u015f burada Xenophon’un ”Sokrates’ten An\u0131lar”\u0131 ile Platon’un ”Apologia”s\u0131n\u0131 ‘Sokrates’in Savunmas\u0131n\u0131” okuyarak Sokrates’e hayran olmu\u015ftur. Bundan sonra Yunan felsefesinin \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131rlar\u0131ndan filozoflar\u0131n derslerini dinlemi\u015f bunlardan da \u00f6zellikle Kyniklerin pek \u00e7ok etkisi alt\u0131nda kalm\u0131\u015f. \u0130lk yap\u0131tlar\u0131 tamam\u0131yla Kynik g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r ama sonra Kyniklerin \u00f6\u011fretisinde esasl\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fiklikler yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: \u0130nsan\u0131n ahlaki \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne, Kyniklerin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi, t\u00f6releri, her t\u00fcrl\u00fc uygarl\u0131k d\u00fczenine sert bir \u015fekilde reddetmekle de\u011fil de, y\u00fcksek \u00e7e\u015fitten bir do\u011fall\u0131kla, ger\u00e7ek bir insanl\u0131kla ula\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fi kan\u0131s\u0131na varm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 4. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru Atina’da Stoa pokilere (resimlerle s\u00fcsl\u00fc direkli bir galeride) okulunu a\u00e7m\u0131\u015f. Okul ad\u0131n\u0131 buradan al\u0131r.<\/p>\n